Browsing by Author "Fosnacht, Donald R"
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Item Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) in Northern Minnesota Using Underground Mine Workings and Above Ground Features(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2015) Fosnacht, Donald R; Wilson, Elizabeth J; Marr, Jeffrey D; Carranza-Torres, Carlos; Hauck, Steven A; Teasley, RebeccaThe goal of this research project is to determine the potential viability, environmental sustainability, and societal benefits of CAES, as a vital, enabling technology for wind turbine based power generation. The intent of this research is to provide a clear roadmap for CAES development in Minnesota. This project is multifaceted and draws resources across the University System and from key industrial partners: Great River Energy and Minnesota Power. The results from the project will provide vital information to decision makers on the potential of CAES and give guidance on how the technology can be implemented using the unique assets of the Minnesota’ various Iron Ranges (Mesabi and Cuyuna) or in other areas, so that renewable mandates and greenhouse gas reduction can be effectively accomplished. The results show that the topography and water resources exist at various sites that could allow a 100 to 200 MW facility to be constructed if the overall economic, mineral rights, and environmental issues associated with a given site can be properly managed. This report delves into the possibilities and outlines selection criteria that can be used for site selection. Other information is developed to compare the potential economic impact of implementation of the project within the constraints of the factors that can be monetized using the current policy environment. Finally, potential life cycle, regulatory, environmental, and permitting issues that are associated with implementation of the concept are discussed.Item Examination of Non-Lithium Battery Storage Concepts(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2021-06) Fosnacht, Donald R; Peterson, Dean M; Myers, EvanThis study was undertaken to inform State of Minnesota Energy Policy and is funded by the Legislative-Citizens Commission on Minnesota Resources (LCCMR). It is focused on identifying alternative energy storage opportunities for the state. Various battery storage techniques for renewable energy are under active development by various parties, and many of these technologies are geared for energy storage for 2- to 4-hour duration. Other non-battery technologies are also under active development. These do not involve electrochemical storage concepts. This report summarizes non-lithium ion battery approaches that take advantage of physical principles involving gravity, compressing air and/or carbon dioxide, using hot carbon dioxide or molten salts or flywheel systems to capture energy that can be converted into electricity when renewable energy sources are unable to provide what is required. The use of these concepts can lead to long-duration storage that can facilitate better capture of available renewable energy and potentially eliminate the need for natural gas-based peaking plants to provide a more stable electrical supply when intermittent (e.g., solar or wind) resources cannot supply the necessary electricity. Additionally, the future impact of hydrogen as a means for long-duration energy storage is considered, especially using ammonia as a storage media. It is also apparent that redox flow batteries may also be useful in supporting storage needs beyond 2- to 4-hour duration. The techniques noted do not require nickel, cobalt, or lithium resources, have improved environmental characteristics, and in most cases reduced fire hazards compared to lithium ion-based battery systems. Finally, geographic information system (GIS) analysis is applied to better understand where the technologies can be potentially adopted at specific locations in the state of Minnesota. Some technologies need very specific geologic features for ready site selection; others can be placed if suitable near-grid locations are available.Item Final Report: Demonstration of Use of Torrefied Biomass in Electric Power Generation(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2018-03-31) Fosnacht, Donald RItem Final Report: Demonstration of Use of Torrefied Biomass in Electric Power Generation(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2018-03-31) Fosnacht, Donald RDuring this task, a literature review was produced that highlighted some of the characteristics of torrefied fuels and the various efforts to develop commercial systems for its routine production (APPENDIX A). The report highlights work in Europe and subsequent work undertaken during this project and illustrates that energy contents approaching sub-bituminous coal can be produced, but also indicates that the new fuel is chemically reactive and must be handled appropriately. In addition, the results indicate that the biological reactivity relative to white pellets is dramatically reduced. The raw torrefied, undensified fuel is moisture resistant, but densified materials have less moisture resistance and can degrade depending on the binders used in producing the compacted fuel materials. Therefore, the ability to concentrate the energy levels while simultaneously meeting various physical property requirements was noted as an active development by European investigators and a key focus area for the work undertaken by the Natural Resources Research Institute (NRRI). Various tests were completed in using torrefied fuel produced under a variety of conditions. The first test was conducted by Southern Company’s Gulf Power Subsidiary at the Plant Scholz in Florida before active implementation of this project. The test demonstrated that material substitution up to 100% could be attained using torrefied fuels as a coal substitute. The test also indicated that the material is reactive and must be handled similarly to sub-bituminous coal. This test also indicated that further enhancement of torrefied fuel properties should be undertaken in order to improve the overall efficiency of the fuels in power plant operations. The work undertaken at Plant Scholz will be summarized in this report. The trials at the various power plants clearly have shown that torrefied fuels can be a significant substitute for sub-bituminous coal without massive capital expenses to accommodate the use of the advanced biomass-based fuel. But it is also very clear that substantial improvements in physical properties that allow reductions in dust generation, improved moisture resistance, and reduced operator intervention relative to coal are still desired. The tests at the power plants noted illustrate that significant growth in knowledge for use of this new fuel is attained as the trial size increases and as the characteristics of the fuel are more clearly understood.Item Generalized Mineral Potential of the Mesabi Purchase Area, Northern Minnesota(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2012-10) Severson, Mark J; Hauck, Steven A; Heine, John J; Fosnacht, Donald RMost of the Mesabi Purchase is underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith that exhibit an extremely low mineral potential to host a metallic deposit. This low potential is demonstrated by the lack of mineral exploration and other core holes drilled in the area by mineral exploration companies. In fact, the vast majority of drill holes shown in the area are associated with scientific holes drilled by the Minnesota Geological Survey for mapping purposes as a follow-up of regional geophysical interpretations. The copper-nickel-PGE mineralization located to the east in the Duluth Complex does not occur in the Mesabi Purchase area. The various types of geologic terrains, and their mineral potential, albeit low in almost all cases, are listed below: • Giants Range Batholith granitic rocks (pink, purple, and orange units on map): 1. Rare Earth Elements (REEs - unknown, but most likely low to moderate potential in spatially-limited deposits; currently being investigated by NRRI throughout Minnesota); 2. Gold along fault zones or contact zones with Greenstone Belt (unknown potential, but unlikely in spatially-limited deposits); 3. Road Aggregate (crushed rock); and 4. Dimension Stone • Greenstone Belt (North Half of Block – green, pale green, and yellow units on map): 1. Copper-Zinc associated with Volcanic Hosted Massive Sulfide deposits (very low potential overall, with moderate potential in T.61N., R.17W.); 2. Gold associated with shear zones and faulted rock (very low potential overall, with weak potential in T.61N., R.17W.); • Small granitic to syenitic plutons associated with a Greenstone terrain (circular pink units on map) with a low to moderate potential of hosting Rare Earth Elements; 2 • Virginia Horn Greenstone Belt (extreme southeastern corner): 1. Gold associated with a syn-volcanic Quartz Feldspar Porphyry (very low potential that has been tested by three drill holes); and • Mesabi Iron Range (red unit on extreme southern fringe of block): 1. Magnetic Taconite ores (the potential of these ores are negligible as most of the rock has already been mined out at the Minntac West Pit, Minntac East Pit, and Minorca Pit); and 2. Road Aggregate (crushed rock – also negligible as in the above category). 3. Mine tailings for various aggregates, bridge deck surfaces, etc. Detailed Township and Range Descriptions T.61N., R.21W. Metasedimentary rocks of a Greenstone terrain are dominant and exhibit no known, or expected, mineral potential. Small syenitic plutons are present and may have a REE potential, but these are largely unexposed and mostly known from limited outcrops and a single drill hole (scientific/mapping drill hole). No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.61N., R.20W. Metasedimentary rocks of a Greenstone terrain with no known, or expected, mineral potential. Small syenitic plutons are present and may have a REE potential, but these are largely unexposed. No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.61N., R.19W. Mostly metasedimentary rocks of a Greenstone terrain (no known potential) with a small amount of mafic volcanic rocks that may have a weak potential of hosting a Cu-Zn or gold deposit. Small syenitic plutons are present and may have a REE potential, but these are largely unexposed. No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T61N., R.18W. Both metasedimentary and mafic volcanic rocks of a Greenstone terrain are the dominant rock types. No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has taken place in either of these rock types, and the expected mineral potential is extremely low. Granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith are present and exhibit a very low potential of hosting a REE deposit. Also present in the western half of the township is the Lost Lake Pluton that has been unsuccessfully explored for gold in the adjacent eastern township. The REE potential of the Lost Lake Pluton is unknown, and this pluton has been recently sampled by the NRRI. T.61N., R.17W. Both metasedimentary and mafic volcanic rocks of a Greenstone terrain are the dominant rock type. Limited exploration for gold deposits has taken place with unsuccessful results (two exploration drill holes with no follow-up). Granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith are present and exhibit a very low potential of hosting a REE deposit. Also present in the township is the eastern half of the Lost Lake Pluton that has been unsuccessfully explored for gold (two drill holes), but may exhibit REE potential. 3 T.60N., R.21W. Granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith are the most prevalent and may show a very low potential of hosting a REE deposit. A glacial drift covered Greenstone Belt is present along the western edge of the township – it exhibits a low mineral potential as this belt has never been explored by minerals companies (except further to the west). T.60N., R.20W. Granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith are the most prevalent. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit (geochemistry results are pending in samples collected from three scientific/mapping drill holes). No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.60N., R.19W. This township is entirely underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit (geochemistry results are pending in samples collected from two scientific/mapping drill holes). No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.60N., R.18W. Granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith are the most prevalent. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit (geochemistry results are pending in samples collected from two scientific/mapping drill holes). No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.60N., R.17W. About 70% of this township is underlain by granitic and schistose rocks of the Giants Range Batholith with a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit (one scientific/mapping drill hole is present). The remaining 30% of the township is underlain by metasedimentary rocks of a Greenstone terrain with a no known, or expected, mineral potential. No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.59N., R21W. Granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith are the most prevalent, but have shown a low potential of hosting a REE deposit to date. A glacial drift covered Greenstone Belt is present in the extreme southern portion of the township – it exhibits a low mineral potential as this belt has never been explored by minerals companies (except further to the west). T.59N., R.20W. This township is entirely underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit (outcrop samples have been collected from some exposures to help ascertain this assessment). No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. 4 T.59N., R.19W. This township is entirely underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit (outcrop samples have been collected from some exposures to help ascertain this assessment). No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. T.59N., R.18W. This township is largely underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit. A wedge of highly metamorphosed Greenstone is present to the north of the Mesabi Range (on USS owned lands) and may exhibit an extremely low potential of hosting a gold deposit. No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. Mined out taconite (USS Minntac Mine) is present along the southern fringe of this township. T.59N., R.17W. This township is largely underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith. These rocks may exhibit a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit. A wedge of highly metamorphosed Greenstone is present to the immediate north of the Mesabi Range and may exhibit an extremely low potential of hosting a gold deposit. No known exploration for any type of mineral deposit has occurred in this township. Mined out taconite is present along the southernmost fringe of this township (Minntac West Pit, Minntac East Pit, and Minorca Mine). T.59N., R.16W. About 85% of this township is underlain by granitic rocks of the Giants Range Batholith with a moderate potential of hosting a REE deposit. The remaining 15% of the township is underlain by mixed metasedimentary and volcanic rocks of a Greenstone terrain referred to as the “Virginia Horn.” Gold mineralization has been documented in the Virginia Horn in the township to the immediate southwest (T.58N., R.17W.). There has been limited exploration for gold in T.59N., R.16W with unsuccessful results (three drill holes). T.58N, R.19W. About 90% of the township is underlain by the Mesabi Iron Formation and the overlying Virginia Formation. The remaining 10% is underlain by igneous rocks of the Giants Range Batholith with low mineral potential.Item New Heat Flow Map of Minnesota Corrected for the Effects of Climate Change and an Assessment of Enhanced Geothermal System Resources(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2012) Klenner, Robert; Gosnold, William; Heine, John J; Severson, Mark J; Hauck, Steven A; Hudak, George J; Fosnacht, Donald RItem Next Generation Metallic Iron Nodule Technology in Electric Arc Steelmaking – Phase II(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2010) Fosnacht, Donald R; Iwasaki, Iwao; Kiesel, Richard F; Englund, David J; Hendrickson, David W; Bleifuss, Rodney LItem Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES) Using Abandoned Mine Pits on the Mesabi Iron Range of Minnesota – Final Report(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2011) Fosnacht, Donald RThis project focuses on developing an energy storage capability within Minnesota that will enable a larger build‐out of variable renewable generation sources. Currently, a significant challenge associated with the predominant renewable resource in our region (wind) is the variable and off‐peak nature of the energy generated. This feature of some renewable generation systems can, unfortunately, cause: (1) the need to build new fossil fuel generating facilities; (2) operation of existing fossil fuel generating facilities at inefficient levels; (3) transmission grid instability and unreliability; and (4) higher electricity rates. Energy storage is key to overcoming these problems. Currently, the only viable means of storing energy on a large scale are through pumped hydro energy storage (PHES), compressed air storage systems or liquid sodium sulfide battery systems. Fortunately, Minnesota has a unique and largely untapped resource for PHES in the form of idled taconite mines on the Mesabi Iron Range. The goal of this research project was to determine the potential viability, environmental sustainability and societal benefits of PHES as a vital, enabling technology for wind turbine‐based power generation. The intent of this research is to provide a clear roadmap for PHES development in Minnesota. The project is multifaceted and draws resources across the University System and from key industrial partners: Great River Energy and Minnesota Power. The results from the project provide vital information to decision makers on the potential of PHES and give guidance on how the technology can be implemented using the unique assets of the Minnesota Iron Ranges so that renewable mandates and green house gas reduction can be effectively accomplished. The results show that the topography and water resources exist at various sites that could allow a 100 to 200 MW facility to be constructed if the overall economic, mineral rights, and environmental issues associated with a given site can be properly managed. The report delves into the possibilities and outlines selection criteria that can be used for site selection. Other information is developed to compare the potential economic impact of implementation of the project within the constraints of the factors that can be monetized using the current policy environment. Finally, potential life cycle, regulatory, environmental, and permitting issues that are associated with implementation of the concept are discussed.Item Research, Development, and Marketing of Minnesota’s Iron Range Aggregate Materials for Midwest and National Transportation Applications: Final Compendium Report to the Economic Development Administration(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2010-11) Zanko, Lawrence M; Fosnacht, Donald R; Hauck, Steven AFrom January 1, 2006 to June 30, 2010, a comprehensive taconite aggregate research and demonstration program was undertaken. The program’s main objectives were to: • identify new and economically viable uses for Minnesota Iron Range taconite aggregate material in road construction and repair projects; and • conduct demonstration projects inside and outside Minnesota, including targeted Upper Midwest States. To assure program success, a cooperative and collaborative research approach was taken using expertise from both public and private entities. The program proceeded in two major phases. The first phase aimed at assessing the resource and road construction market opportunity in terms of technical information on aggregate applications, unique properties and benefits, different mix designs and attributes, alternative products and technologies, and to build awareness and interest in the expanded use of taconite aggregate products at the regional and national scale. Material logistics and costs, and market opportunities and approaches to demonstrate taconite aggregate’s advantages were also assessed during this first phase. The second phase expanded on the first phase findings and used them as a guide for demonstrating the actual use of taconite aggregate products on a larger scale throughout Minnesota and the Midwest in potential construction applications. The geologic characteristics of potential aggregate materials on Minnesota’s Mesabi Iron Range were characterized on a broad basis during both phases.Item Research, Development, and Marketing of Minnesota’s Iron Range Aggregate Materials for Midwest and National Transportation Applications: July 2007 Progress Report to the Economic Development Administration(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2007-07) Zanko, Lawrence M; Fosnacht, Donald R; Hauck, Steven AItem Summary Report: Environmental Particulate Matter Characterization(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2019-11) Monson Geerts, Stephen D; Hudak, George J; Zanko, Lawrence M; Fosnacht, Donald RThe NRRI characterization studies provide physical (size and shape), mineralogical, chemical, geological, geographical, and historical context to the findings of the University of Minnesota’s School of Public Health (SPH) and the University of Minnesota Medical School (UMMS). The SPH and UMMS findings (Finnegan and Mandel, 2014) showed that mesothelioma is associated with working longer in the taconite industry. However, the SPH and UMMS investigators “…were not able to state with certainty that the association with EMPs and mesothelioma was related to the ore dust or to the use of commercial asbestos or both.” The NRRI findings indicate the following: 1) Low concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and EMPs in Mesabi Iron Range community air. 2) Elemental iron concentrations in MIR communities were similar to elemental iron concentrations in background sampling locations when taconite mines/plants were inactive. When taconite mines/plants were active, the elemental iron concentrations within communities were found to be statistically higher. 3) Mineralogically and morphologically, the EMPs identified in MIR communities and taconite processing plants were dominated by particles that did not fit the “countable”/”covered” classification criteria. Of the 145 “covered” EMPs identified within the six MIR taconite processing plants, a total of 8 were “countable” (NIOSH, 2011), representing 1.1% of the total number of EMPs, out of 691 total. These EMPs were detected in two taconite plants (seven in one plant and one in another); no other “countable”/”covered” EMPs were detected in the other four plants. 4) The lake sediment study returned similar results, in which 4 of the study’s 790 identified EMPs found in the lake sediment samples met the “countable”/”covered” classification. 5) In comparison to the NIOSH standard, for countable particles, the results from this study show that the community air has significantly lower amounts than the standard. 6) Only one plant and two areas in this plant had countable EMPs above the NIOSH benchmark. 7) The highest particulate matter found was for the Minneapolis reference site in comparison for the Range communities and the other two reference sites. 8) The use of MOUDI sampling techniques is a good method for better understanding not only what is in the air, but also the size of the particles that are in the air. 9) Study of lake sediment can be used to interpret some of the impacts of past industrial activities and to gain a better understanding of the impact of local geology.Item Test Sample Production Report Torrefaction of Ponderosa Pine Chips(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2019-03) Hagen, Timothy S; Young, Matthew; Mack, Paul; Grochowski, Jack; Kangas, Kevin W; Fosnacht, Donald ROregon Torrefaction, LLC (OTL) and the US Endowment for Forestry and Communities has formed Restoration Fuels, LLC (RF) to construct and operate a 12 ton/h kiln torrefier which targets approximately 100,000 tons of torrefied woody biomass production annually. The plant will be colocated at the Malheur Lumber Mill, located in John Day, Oregon. Biomass sourcing will be principally small diameter, low-value wood from surrounding or nearby national forests including the Malheur and the Ochoco National Forests. The bulk of the woody biomass will be Ponderosa Pine from the dry land forests that surround John Day. Biomass coming from national forest areas have been evaluated for compliance with the US National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and are termed “shelf ready” for treatment. Restoration Fuels is now in the process of acquiring biomass supply to feed the torrefier. Early discussions with potential domestic and off-shore customers points to the need to have torrefied, densified test samples available for their evaluation, and it is in OTL’s interest on behalf of RF to produce a test batch of torrefied biomass that would be representative of RF’s future fuel product and to make samples available to serve customer interests. The effort is funded by the US Endowment and US Forest Service. To accomplish the test sample production, the OTL provided 32.8 tons of wood chips to the Biomass Conversion Lab (BCL) located in Coleraine, MN for a sustained torrefaction production run using ponderosa pine as feedstock. The targeted specification for the torrefied wood chips as requested by OTL was 9,500 btu/lb. The BCL successfully torrefied and provided over 14 tons of torrefied feed stock to the OTL that met this targeted specification.Item Use of Improved Densification Conditions for Producing High Fuel Content Products from Biomass Processed by Torrefaction, Hydrothermal Carbonization, and Various Densification Methodologies: Final Report(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2018-03-31) Fosnacht, Donald R; Hagen, Timothy S; Young, Matthew; Carden, Kendall; Kiesel, Richard FThe Natural Resources Research Institute is engaged in work to develop demonstration-level production of solid biofuel densified products that can be stored outside, have high bulk densities for ease of logistical transport, have good handling characteristics that minimize dust generation, possess grindability that is like coal used in power plants, and have fuel contents that match or exceed sub-bituminous coal levels. During the work, two pretreatment technologies have been investigated for concentrating the energy content of raw biomass. These include: torrefaction using an indirectly fired rotary kiln process at the demonstration level and hydrothermal carbonization at the bench and pilot scale. The Institute has also collaborated with Syngas technologies on a pilot-scale moving bed, directly heated steambased process at the pilot scale and next year will install this technology at the demonstration scale. A key factor in showing the full technical feasibility of using the pretreated materials is to demonstrate that the produced particulate fuel products can be densified to a level that allows good logistical and handling practices to be routinely attained. It has been found that hydrothermally carbonized processed materials can be agglomerated using a variety of densification devices including pelleting and briquetting in a repeatable and practical manner using commercial densification equipment with and without the use of binders. However, torrefied materials have proven to be much more difficult to densify using a variety of densification equipment, especially as the degree of torrefaction increases. Uniformly torrefied materials at high energy level appear to be especially difficult to densify but have the attributes of high fuel value and good grindability, with very little residual fiber content compared to less-torrefied material or steam-exploded biomass. Therefore, the work undertaken and explained in the following discussion has been conducted and shows that highly torrefied materials can be satisfactorily densified to produce high-energy-content products that have good physical properties, possess acceptable moisture resistance, low ash, sulfur and mercury content, and have bulk densities that can lead to improved logistics. The densification practices involve optimizing overall process conditions on an integrated systems basis and include moisture level, densification pressure, mix preparation pressure, and the use of appropriate binders when required. The densification system that seems to show the greatest promise for the highly torrefied materials is briquetting. Work will continue in examining other densification options and in improving the conditions used and discussed in this report.Item Use of Improved Densification Conditions for Producing High Fuel Content Products from Biomass Processed by Torrefaction, Hydrothermal Carbonization, and Various Densification Methodologies: Final Report(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2018-03-31) Fosnacht, Donald R; Hagen, Timothy S; Young, Matthew; Carden, Kendall; Kiesel, Richard FThe Natural Resources Research Institute is engaged in work to develop demonstration-level production of solid biofuel densified products that can be stored outside, have high bulk densities for ease of logistical transport, have good handling characteristics that minimize dust generation, possess grindability that is like coal used in power plants, and have fuel contents that match or exceed sub-bituminous coal levels. During the work, two pretreatment technologies have been investigated for concentrating the energy content of raw biomass. These include: torrefaction using an indirectly fired rotary kiln process at the demonstration level and hydrothermal carbonization at the bench and pilot scale. The Institute has also collaborated with Syngas technologies on a pilot-scale moving bed, directly heated steam-based process at the pilot scale and next year will install this technology at the demonstration scale. A key factor in showing the full technical feasibility of using the pretreated materials is to demonstrate that the produced particulate fuel products can be densified to a level that allows good logistical and handling practices to be routinely attained. It has been found that hydrothermally carbonized processed materials can be agglomerated using a variety of densification devices including pelleting and briquetting in a repeatable and practical manner using commercial densification equipment with and without the use of binders. However, torrefied materials have proven to be much more difficult to densify using a variety of densification equipment, especially as the degree of torrefaction increases. Uniformly torrefied materials at high energy level appear to be especially difficult to densify but have the attributes of high fuel value and good grindability, with very little residual fiber content compared to less-torrefied material or steam-exploded biomass. Therefore, the work undertaken and explained in the following discussion has been conducted and shows that highly torrefied materials can be satisfactorily densified to produce high-energy-content products that have good physical properties, possess acceptable moisture resistance, low ash, sulfur and mercury content, and have bulk densities that can lead to improved logistics. The densification practices involve optimizing overall process conditions on an integrated systems basis and include moisture level, densification pressure, mix preparation pressure, and the use of appropriate binders when required. The densification system that seems to show the greatest promise for the highly torrefied materials is briquetting. Work will continue in examining other densification options and in improving the conditions used and discussed in this report.