Browsing by Subject "summa cum laude"

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Abstract Syntax Contextualization Framework for Debugging Attribute Grammar Specifications
(2024) Feraru, Matthew;
In this thesis, we explore an aspect of debugging attribute grammar (AG) specifications. AG frameworks in themselves are high-level languages that allow a programmer to specify the syntax rules and semantics of a new programming language. The debugging of AG specifications is often done by interactively traversing abstract syntax trees (ASTs) that represent a parsed program in a metaprogram. The goal of such debugging is to find AG specifications with semantic rules that observe correct inputs but incorrect outputs—the possible bugs of AG specifications we consider. For large programs, ASTs may be difficult to understand by a programmer; graphically rendering ASTs in a debugging interface is challenging and still does not make it straightforwardly easy to understand ASTs relative to source code. Resultantly, we propose a textual way to use source and source-like syntax to represent the location of a navigated-to AST node relative to its position in an entire AST and highlight any notable features of the tree, such as the application of rewrite rules. This contextualization framework of abstract syntax tree nodes has been prototyped to work on Silver [1] specifications, but it is applicable to any AG framework since it only relies on the core features of the AG paradigm itself.
Analysis of Wind-Driven and Water-Driven Transportation of Gross Solids in Urban Watersheds
(2023) Narváez, Natalie;
Watershed health is heavily influenced by urbanization and the export of associated pollutants such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) that leach into stormwater and accelerate the effects of eutrophication. In urban watersheds, gross solids materials have been shown to contribute significant amounts of P to stormwater runoff. Positive correlations have been identified between precipitation patterns and influxes of gross solids to stormwater runoff. However, the role of wind-driven transportation as a contributor of organic material to urban stormwater solids remains poorly understood in comparison to the role of water-driven transportation. Wind-blown leaf litter has the potential to travel beyond the hydrologically connected areas that bound much of the research on stormwater solids. To address this knowledge gap, a detailed analysis was conducted on identifiable tree material from gross solids samples captured at two different rain garden sites - one parking lot site and one residential street site - with low canopy cover in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan region in Minnesota, USA, to assess the possible mechanisms behind their deposition into the rain garden sites. It was assumed that material from outside of the watershed was transported by wind. Findings showed that material from outside the hydrologic watershed plays a significant role in the prevalence of gross solids, with an average percentage of 29% of material from outside the watershed and 71% from inside the watershed. Material from outside the watershed represented the majority of identified material from the residential street site. Material from within the watershed appeared to rise and fall along with precipitation patterns while material from outside the watershed appeared to fluctuate opposite them, suggesting that material from outside the watershed is more dominant in dryer conditions. Results of this study suggest that material from outside the watersheds represents a significant portion of leaf litter and other plant materials that constitute the organic fraction of urban stormwater solids.
Anti-Fandom Perceptions of Inauthenticity in a Celebrity Person-Brand
(2025) Jackson, Sofia;
Brand narrative elements, such as plot events and characters, orient a consumer's understanding of the values and intentions of a person-brand. Consumers may develop expectations of a person-brand based on the brand narrative and repeated exposure. However, unmet expectations, violations of moral standards or perceived inauthenticity may drive consumers to develop negative attitudes toward a person-brand. By conducting a content analysis of an internet forum of anti-fans dedicated to a celebrity person-brand, this work examines the extent of the existence of authenticity violations (deception, ulterior motives and adulteration) within anti-fan commentary. Results indicate that perceptions of inauthenticity are related to negative off-brand behavior within plot events and characters because the narrative diverges from consumers’ expectations and moral standards. Considering the extent to which consumers rely on an emotionally resonant narrative to establish trust and a connection, findings suggest there is importance in maintaining brand consistency. The absence of adherence to brand narrative expectations may influence the development of NPSRs, leading to anti-fandom engagement. This work embraces the call for further research about anti-fandom from a multidimensional perspective. It expands prior understanding of the strategic dynamic between person-brands and consumers, and suggests anti-fandom as a consequence for when a brand narrative is perceived by emotionally attached consumers as inauthentic.
Busted: Executive Misconduct and Its Implications for a Firm's Tax Avoidance
(2023) Manna, Jackson;
The title of ‘CEO’ confers upon an individual considerable influence over his or her organization, from corporate culture to financial reporting. Prior research has documented that the individual acting as CEO has a significant impact on a firm’s tax planning activities – the degree to which tax is avoided and the aggressiveness of tax positions taken. With such power comes substantial responsibility – particularly in recent years, corporate CEOs have faced heightened scrutiny and accusations regarding personal behaviors outside of work. This thesis analyzes whether an accusation of personal misconduct against a CEO has a significant impact on the tax planning activities of his or her firm. Tax avoidance is an appropriate means through which to measure the impact that personal misconduct allegations against the CEO have on the business-related aspects of a company. In the context of ethical misconduct and the allegations that follow, tax avoidance is unique from other financial metrics in that it has strong ethical considerations. It may follow, therefore, that decisions made by a firm in light of alleged ethical violations by the CEO will be reflected in the firm’s tax planning. I hypothesize that perceived scrutiny against a CEO for personal misconduct will motivate the firm to perform less aggressive tax avoidance in the years that follow. I examine this hypothesis through a multi-year event study which compares the change in tax avoidance for firms that experienced a CEO “violation event” against firms that did not. Through correlation and regression analyses, my results do not show significant evidence that personal misconduct allegations against a CEO influence a firm’s level of tax avoidance. However, there still exists strong motivation for further research.
Covering Counterculture: A Comparative Analysis of the Employment of Protest Paradigm Strategies By Mainstream and Alternative Twin Cities Newspapers During the Morrill Hall Takeover (1969)
(2025) Hadler, Calli;
This study examines how protest paradigm strategies were used in the coverage of the Morrill Hall Takeover (1969) by three mainstream and one alternative Twin Cities print newspapers. By analyzing the content of the newspaper’s coverage directly related to the protest in the months following the initial protest, this research explores protest paradigm theory within this context as well as the potential correlation between the employment of these strategies and the type of news publication– mainstream or alternative. The findings from the study indicate that all examined news publications used protest paradigm strategies in their coverage of the Morrill Hall Takeover (1969), to some degree. Furthermore, it was found that a correlation between the employment of these strategies and the type of news publication was dependent on the specific type of strategy being analyzed. These findings contribute to the understanding of the protest paradigm theory as it relates to historical protest movements in addition to understanding how coverage of protest may influence the collective memory of these events.This study adds to existing literature by evaluating the protest paradigm theory with regard to a historical protest event which allows the theory to be better contextualized within the broader history of journalistic coverage of protests.
Dynamic Modelling and Control of Exoskeleton Gantry Robot
(2024) Hajare, Eesha;
This thesis presents the development and analysis of dynamic model of an exoskeleton gantry used to perform brain studies in freely moving mice for neuroscience experiments. The dynamic of model of the exoskeleton gantry comprised of X and Y stages is developed, and relevant system characteristics like bandwidth and stability are studied using theoretical model to predict the system behavior. The predicted bandwidth of the open loop system is found to be 1.9Hz and 3.8Hz for the Stage X and Y respectively using the theoretical model. The open loop system was further verified experimentally using LABVIEW and an experimental model was generated using computer software. According to the experimental results, the open-loop bandwidth of the X and Y stages was found to be 2.3 Hz and 2.76 Hz respectively. Furthermore, the open loop system is also used to gauge the stability of the closed-loop and the gain and phase margin are studied for the same purpose. According to theoretical studies, it is expected that the bandwidth of the open and closed loop system is expected to increase with a decrease in payload. The gain margin and phase margin are predicted theoretically and verified experimentally are well above the determined threshold of 2dB for gain margin and 450 for phase margin, this ensures the stability of the closed loop exoskeleton system. Moreover, the closed-loop bandwidth of the system is predicted using the theoretical model and an admittance control framework is proposed. The predicted closed-loop bandwidth for the exoskeleton gantry is found to be 19.2Hz and 16.4Hz for X and Y stages respectively. Furthermore, preliminary experimentation of the gantry with admittance control implementation suggests a closed loop bandwidth of 46Hz for Stage X.
Dynamic Wide-Baseline Stereo Vision on a Transformable UAV
(2025) Brogni, Anthony;
Stereo vision is used extensively in robotics for applications such as 3D mapping and obstacle detection. It can be employed on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for these purposes. However, a large baseline is often necessary to obtain depth estimates that are sufficiently distant for a UAV to react to obstacles in time. A wide-baseline stereo vision setup that takes advantage of the full wingspan of a fixed-wing UAV is a natural solution to this problem. However, the dynamic nature of such a system, especially due to wing deformation during flight, can present a challenging problem to solve. Ideally, the stereo baseline should be dynamic to account for these deformations. The work done in this area of robotics can be applied to an even more dynamic scenario: a transformable UAV with the capabilities of both fixed-wing and quadrotor flight. This paper addresses the problem of dynamic wide-baseline stereo vision on a transformable UAV platform. It details the design, implementation, and testing of a system that dynamically adapts to changes in both relative camera orientations and baseline. The system utilizes a model-based kinematics approach, incorporating the known geometry of the UAV and the current state of its servo-actuated joints to estimate the dynamic orientation and baseline of the cameras. This approach is then fused with a visionbased approach that involves estimating the essential matrix from SIFT features for a more robust recalibration approach in real-world scenarios. The ROS 2 middleware facilitates communication between the various software components of this project. All testing was conducted in a Gazebo simulation environment. The results demonstrate the system’s ability to generate disparity maps even with significant changes in the baseline and orientation of the cameras, validating the proposed dynamic stereo vision approach.
Echoes of Identity: Reflections of Medea in Euripides' Bacchae
(2023) Tallarini, Amelia;
In Euripides’ Medea, one of his earliest surviving plays, we are faced with an unusual titular character. Medea is an extraordinarily powerful woman. Before her marriage to Jason, she had enabled him to reach heroic status through obtaining the Golden Fleece by her ruthless use of magical force. Despite this help which he received from her, Jason decides to divorce Medea, a barbarian woman, in favor of the princess of Corinth. The action of the play opens with Medea deciding what to do given this situation. As the plot unfolds, Medea takes on multiple roles. She starts as a victim of Jason’s abandonment. She then begins plotting vengeance upon him, and her initial plan includes murdering his future bride to get herself even with Jason. When she adds filicide into her revenge plot, Medea transgresses ordinary human boundaries and becomes a fiend. At the same time, however, she once again becomes a victim, but this time Medea is a victim of herself rather than of another. Medea’s personality is thus split, and her character contains contradictory elements both sequentially and simultaneously.
Experimental investigation of hybrid hydraulic fiber-reinforced actuators incorporating shape memory alloy
(2023) Brinkert, Kate;
The emerging field of soft robotics aims to offer solutions to many of the limiting factors present in traditional, “hard” robotics, such as complexity, material rigidity, and a lack of compliance. Fiber-reinforced elastomeric enclosure (FREE) actuators, including the well-researched McKibben pneumatic artificial muscle, are some of the most prevalent applications of this field due to their high power density and ability to actuate an entire structure with many degrees of freedom from a single pressure source. The kinematic behavior of these actuators is governed by the wrap architecture of the inextensible reinforcing fibers, and tailored motions can be achieved by simply adjusting the number of fiber families and their respective wrap angles. In this experimental investigation, eight hybrid hydraulic FREE prototypes are developed to explore the kinematic effects of incorporating a single wire of shape memory alloy (SMA) into various wrap geometries, including asymmetric configurations, which are previously unexplored. Changes in actuator length and rotation for each prototype are analyzed using discrete marker tracking as functions of the control variables of volumetric input and applied current, and kinematic behaviors are compared over various parameters of wrap geometry. Trends are established for the effects of wrap angles and their relationships to a generalized kinematic design space for FREES on the actuation potential of an incorporated fiber of SMA. Promising results are described for two additional proof of concept prototypes in an initial exploration of incorporating more than one SMA fiber into a hybrid actuator and expanding to more complex wrap configurations. This research demonstrates the capability of SMA to both augment passive actuator behavior and produce new forms of multimodal motion, providing a stepping stone towards more tailored applications of hybrid soft actuators.
FIST-nD: A tool for n-dimensional spatial transcriptomics data imputation via graph-regularized tensor completion
(2023) Atkins, Thomas K;
Functional interpretation of spatial transcriptomics data usually requires non-trivial preprocessing steps and other supporting data in the analysis due to the high sparsity and incompleteness of spatial RNA profiling, especially in 3D constructions. As a solution, we present a new software tool FIST-nD, Fast Imputation of Spatially-resolved transcriptomes by graph-regularized Tensor completion in n-Dimensions for imputing 3D as well as 2D spatial transcriptomics data. FIST-nD is implemented based on a novel graph-regularized tensor decomposition method, which imputes spatial gene expression data using 4-way high-order tensor structure and relations in spatial and gene functional graphs. The implementation, accelerated by GPU or multicore parallel computing, can efficiently impute high-resolution 3D spatial transcriptomics data within a few minutes. The experiments on three 3D Spatial Transcriptomics datasets and one 3D high-resolution Stereo-seq dataset confirm the high accuracy of the imputation by FIST-nD and demonstrate that the imputed spatial transcriptomes provide a more complete gene expression landscape for downstream analyses such as spatial gene expression clustering and visualizations.
Gertrude Bell: The Khatun Who Created Iraq?
(2020) Delahanty, Shannon;
This thesis will explore to what extent Gertrude Bell can be considered the architect of Iraq, considering her need to balance gender expectations and the personal beliefs of a 19th-century woman with interwar state-building apparatuses to create the Iraqi Mandate. By tying in her personal background as a historian and field trained archeologist, the structure and style of British museum culture and the state of global antiquities law can be compared to Bell’s approach to building the Baghdad Archeological Museum’s collection as a social and state shaping apparatus. Throughout this investigation, I will argue that her permanent place in political Iraqi history stems from her writing of the Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia White Paper, her position as a political and social analyst, and her advisory relationship with King Faisal, while her efforts to create the definition of a centralized national identity through the national museum and public programming cements her in the state’s sociological history.
How Global Change Shapes Our World: Nitrogen and Salt Addition Affect Phytoplankton Morphology in a Small Freshwater Lake
(2024) Rodgers, Amanda;
Global environmental change has accelerated the deposition of nitrogen and salt into freshwaters. These changes affect the morphology of freshwater microbes, especially phytoplankton, which serve as primary producers for these ecosystems. Morphology reflects a microbe’s response to energy demands, selection, and environmental disturbance. In this pilot experiment, a handmade suspension device held samples from Cedar Bog Lake (East Bethel, MN) in three nitrogen conditions (17.6 mM NaNO3, 9 mM NaNO3, 0 mM NaNO3) crossed with two salt conditions (10 mM of NaCl or 0 mM of NaCl) plus a DI water control for BG11 media in triplicate on the surface of the lake for three weeks. I used flow cytometry to quantify community-level within-sample morphology using circle fit, area-based diameter (ABD) volume, aspect ratio, elongation, ABD area, compactness, particles/mL, and perimeter. A principal components analysis (PCA) revealed trait correlations between ABD area and ABD volume, and between circle fit, elongation, and compactness. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the first three principal components (highly significant, accounting for 94.89% of the total variance) revealed a significant effect of nitrogen and a marginally significant effect of salt on principal component three, but no effect of treatment on the first two principal components. Nitrogen had a significant effect on particles/mL but treatment did not affect any of the other morphological traits individually. These results indicate that climate change has a complicated effect on freshwater microbial morphology at the community level. Future studies should focus on long-term changes in morphology in the field, focusing on the effects of nitrogen.
How News Organizations Inform Their Readers of the Use of AI
(2025) Roessler, Amelia;
The journalism and the media landscape is facing increasing challenges as the wave of new digital technology and machine learning enters the news sphere. This study examines how media outlets inform their readers about AI and their use of AI, and further looks into whether these outlets maintain ethical guidelines regarding AI. A content analysis of the top 100 print news organizations and the top 50 online news outlets within the U.S. was conducted to identify codes of ethics, AI codes of ethics, and the use and restrictions of AI within the news organization. Results indicate that very few news organizations include language or ethical codes regarding the use of AI within news production and publication. Within the context of ethical guidelines in journalism, this finding suggests a need for further codes of ethics surrounding the topic of AI to be adopted by more news organizations. These findings contribute to the existing literature and media landscape research by illustrating how exactly AI in the news process is being understood by both news organizations and readers. They also have implications for policymakers and media organizations seeking to regulate use and restrictions of AI within the media.
Media Consolidation's Relationship to Voter Turnout in Elections
(2022) Mazzetta, Marissa;
Media consolidation is on the rise especially when it comes to local news. This study aims to find if media consolidation affects citizens’ civic engagement, specifically voter turnout in non-presidential and presidential elections. Understanding what factors lead to higher voter turnout can be helpful in creating a more civically engaged country leading to progress that reflects the needs and wants of a more accurate majority. Consumption of local news has been tied to better civic engagement in the past. While media consolidation has been known to diminish the local news environment it has taken control over. Due to these two notions, it could be expected that there would be a connection between media consolidation and voter turnout. Through data analysis of voter turnout data of 24 Texas counties from the years 1990 to 2020 it was found through ANOVA tests that there were no significant changes in voter turnout between elections. These results lead to the belief that media consolidation alone does not have a significant impact on voter turnout. This opens up further understanding into the relationship between journalism and election turnout, and the reasons for fluctuation in voter turnout between elections.
Mental Health Advertising on Social Media
(2025) Miller, Julia;
This study investigates the impact social media advertising of mental health apps has on user well-being, centering on the social implications of advertising to a broad audience across multiple media channels. While previous research has examined digital mental health interventions, few have compared individual mental health apps or explored the varying specifics of their advertisements. This study utilizes content analysis to examine the advertising characteristics of four widely used mental health apps, focusing on symptoms, tonality, message appeal, and support systems. The findings reveal that mental health app advertisements most frequently address anxiety symptoms, emphasizing rational appeals—such as therapist support—and a positive tone. However, these advertisements neglect less visible symptoms and essential support systems outside the app’s resources. This raises ethical concerns about whether these ads genuinely promote user recovery or prioritize financial gain. This contributes to the literature on psychology and advertising by encouraging discourse on the landscape of mental health app advertisements across media platforms. Ultimately, advertising has the power to shape consumer behavior and is centered on an ethical responsibility given to advertisers. As mental health issues become less stigmatized, it is vital that these ads genuinely benefit users.
Modelling Dynamics in the Macroeconomy Involving the Relationship between Economic Growth and Crime Rates
(2023) Mardanyan, Hayk;
The relationship between economic growth and crime rates is often the subject of statistical analyses by agencies such as the World Bank and the IMF. These agencies estimate a negative correlation between crime rates and economic growth: in environments of economic prosperity, crime tends to be lower. However, there are not many theoretical papers exploring why this has to be the case, or whether there are any underlying determinants of the growth and crime rates. One interesting paper modelling these variables is Goulas, A. and Zervoyianni, 2015: they incorporate crime rates into a standard Solow model and split public spending into productive spending and unproductive spending, where the latter stems from criminal behavior in the society. They then get a steady-state equation for aggregate output which is a function of crime rates, among others. This is one of many recent theoretical papers that try to incorporate crime rates into a general macroeconomic growth model. My project contributes to the ongoing academic discussion on the subject, featuring a statistical model where crime rates and economic growth are correlated and there is causality in both directions. This model will be used to estimate the causal effect of growth on crime rates and crime rates on growth, as well as to investigate the causal effect of institutions on both crime rates and growth. The paper also entertains the possibility of a “spiral effect”: as crime rates increase, there is a smaller fraction of the population involved in productive activities, which reduces economic growth. This in turn results in even more people resorting to criminal activities because there are less economic opportunities available as a result of economic slowdown. On the other hand, as crime rates decrease, economic growth will be enhanced, which will create even more economic opportunities and reduce crime rates even further. The statistical model is estimated by using a panel dataset involving post-colonial economies from both the advanced, developing and underdeveloped categories, spanning the years 2000 through 2019. I will use an instrumental variable approach to estimate the causal effect of growth on crime rates and crime rates on growth, as well as to test for the directionality of the causal effect of institutions on both crime rates and growth. The importance of this kind of research is evident: if the institutions of an economy play an important role in determining growth and crime rates in equilibrium, this may suggest that foreign assistance and institutional exchange programs aimed at improving institutions in poorer countries can go a long way in helping them get out of stagnant macroeconomic conditions such as meager economic growth and high crime.
Opinions on the Peruvian Executive: A Study on Presidential Transitions and Approval
(2023) Llerena, Gabriela;
This paper explores the various presidential transitions in Peru, their relationship with Congress and corruption, and the impact of Alberto Fujimori’s decade-long presidency. I build upon existing literature investigating Peruvian opinion and draw from nationally conducted Peruvian polls to investigate individual presidents' role in the public’s perceptions of corruption, support for democracy, tolerance of the president closing Congress, and confidence in elections, Congress, and the president. To supplement these public opinion surveys, I conducted qualitative interviews with Peruvians in the U.S. and Peru, providing a deeper look at what has impacted their opinion towards the government. I analyze how the rapid presidential turnover after 2016 influences public opinion and why the public looks more favorably upon the president than Congress. Since 2016, Peru has had six presidents, three of whom Congress impeached. Almost all Peruvian presidents have been involved in corrupt practices, yet the public views the president as more favorable than Congress. I find that Fujimori’s strong-handed presidency, differences in accountability of Congress and the president to the public, and heightened divisions between the two branches offer an explanation for public opinion. This study is important for exploring the ongoing presidential transitions and whether Peru hopes to regain governmental stability in the future.
Pride in Print: A Thematic Analysis of Queer Zines and Print Media from the Twin Cities
(2025) Wagen, Sommer;
Queer culture outside of the community’s coastal meccas of New York City and San Francisco has been largely unexplored. This study zooms in on the Middle U.S., specifically the Twin Cities, to paint a picture of queer culture in the northern metropolis that is paradoxically considered “flyover.” Using journalism as a function of culture, this study thematically analyzes five independent queer print publications, also known as zines, created between 1977 and 2023, and connects their artistic elements with cultural values identified across the artifacts. This study also examined how the artifacts portrayed these cultural values across time. The results show a thriving, multifaceted queer community that refutes long-held misconceptions of the Middle U.S. as a conservative hell bent on queer erasure. Throughout history, Twin Cities queer publications have sought to expand their communities as much as possible, aiming to reach people outside of the cities, the state, and even the country. Contemporary publications recognize how special their predecessors were and how fragile their history is, which has sparked a revival of queer print media. This study uniquely approaches media studies by uplifting alternative forms of journalism, emphasizing the artistry involved in journalism, and addressing a crucial gap in queer studies.
Redshift Dependence of Stochastic Gravitational Wave Background and Galaxy Overdensity Cross-Correlation
(2023) Feist, Noelle;
Following [1], the cross-correlation between the stochastic gravitational wave background (SGWB) due to binary black hole mergers and the sky distribution of galaxies was computed. The SGWB anisotropies are obtained from the third observing run (O3) of Advanced LIGO, and the galaxy distribution was taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) spectroscopic catalogue. The angular power of the cross-correlation in 10Hz wide GW frequency bins and 0.1 wide redshift bins was found to be noise-dominated. The resulting angular cross-rcross-correlation power spectra were used to find the maximum likelihood estimates for parameters to a simplified astrophysical kernel with amplitude Amax and redshift center zc. No constraints were able to be placed on the redshift, but a 95% confidence upper-limit was found for Amax = 8.3 × 10−33erg/cm3s1/3. This analysis was limited by the redshift range of the catalogue and GW sensitivity. As data sensitivity grows, better estimates for the bound of the astrophysical kernel will be found.
Renewable Energy Development by Electric Cooperatives: Indirect Uses of Federal Energy Tax Credits
(2022-12-22) Gutenkauf, Gabriella;
In this thesis, I look to understand how electric cooperatives develop renewable energy in a cost-effective manner, despite the inability to use popular financing methods such as the production tax credit and the investment tax credit. I also analyze how their current practices may be impacted by the addition of direct pay as a policy tool in the Inflation Reduction Act. Electric cooperatives provide energy to 56% of the nation’s landmass, specifically to rural communities that investor-owned utilities do not reach. The national push for decarbonization of the energy industry has put requirements such as renewable portfolio standards on utilities, demanding certain percentages of their portfolio to come from renewable energy. Electric cooperatives struggle with this development of renewable energy because their status as not-for-profit entities prevents them from utilizing federal investment and production tax credits. I conducted four interviews with the electric cooperatives Dairyland Power, Great River Energy, Hoosier Energy, and Old Dominion Electric Cooperative to understand their decision-making process in the development of renewable energy. I identified five key factors impacting this decision making: providing low-cost energy to members, size of staff and resources, membership in the National Renewables Cooperative Organization, project size, and interconnection concerns. I also found that cooperatives had mixed opinions on whether they were hoping to quickly begin using direct pay options once it was available. These findings show that it will be very important that any future policy tool, including direct pay, will need to ensure it still allows cooperatives to achieve their goal of providing the lowest cost of energy.

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