Browsing by Subject "Taking Stock - Risk, Vulnerability, Resiliences, & Recovery"

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2012 Northeast and Central Minnesota Flooding
(2015) Curtice, Brian
This three-page pdf is a FEMA proclamation issued on July 6 2012 concerning the June 14-21 2012 floods in the Duluth area. All of Minnesota's coastal counties and communities were included in the declaration, along with the Fond du Lac, Mille Lacs and Grand Portage bands of Ojibwe. The declaration includes public assistance and disaster mitigation in the affected areas totaling $44.7 million. Also noted is emergency legislation totaling $167 million passed by a special session of the Minnesota Legislature and signed by Governor Mark Dayton.
Building Superior Coastal Communities
(University of Minnesota. Minnesota Sea Grant, 2006) Schomberg, Jesse; Hagley, Cindy; Desotelle, Diane; O'Halloran, Sue
Changes to this region and its human population are inevitable. This paper provides a discussion of human-induced stresses and impacts on the Lake Superior basin (runoff, sediment and erosion, nutrient loading, increased water temperatures, bacteria and toxic contaminants). Development pressures (including subdivisions) and economic growth and industrial activities (logging, mining etc.) impact sensitive areas in the Lake Superior basin. Environmental indicators (forest cover, water storage, impervious surfaces) are summarized and explained. The paper describes fundamental management tools (natural resource inventory, comprehensive land use planning, zoning and conservation design). The document provides several examples of innovative coastal projects.
Climate Change Impacts on the Water Resources of American Indians and Alaska Natives in the U.S.
(2013) Cozzetto, K; Chief, K; Kittmer, K; Brubaker, M; Gough, R; Souza, K; Ettawageshik, F; Wotkyns, S; Opitz-Stapleton, S; Duren, S; Chavan, P
This informative paper links the perspectives and concerns of American Indians with predictions of climate change impacts on natural resources and Native communities. The report cites current and predicted impacts on the Fond du Lac Reservation in northeastern Minnesota, referencing several local sources and tribal authorities. Extracts of key points are reproduced below. "This paper provides an overview of climate change impacts on tribal water resources and the subsequent cascading effects on the livelihoods and cultures of American Indians and Alaska Natives living on tribal lands in the U.S. A hazards and vulnerability framework for understanding these impacts is first presented followed by context on the framework components, including climate, hydrologic, and ecosystem changes (i.e. hazards) and tribe-specific vulnerability factors (socioeconomic, political, infrastructural, environmental, spiritual and cultural), which when combined with hazards lead to impacts. Next regional summaries of impacts around the U.S. are discussed. Although each tribal community experiences unique sets of impacts because of their individual history, culture, and geographic setting, many of the observed impacts are common among different groups and can be categorized as impacts on—1) water supply and management (including water sources and infrastructure), 2) aquatic species important for culture and subsistence, 3) ranching and agriculture particularly from climate extremes (e.g., droughts, floods), 4) tribal sovereignty and rights associated with water resources, fishing, hunting, and gathering, and 5) soil quality (e.g., from coastal and riverine erosion prompting tribal relocation or from drought-related land degradation). The paper finishes by highlighting potentially relevant research questions based on the five impact categories. The Midwest (MW) is the location of the five lakes comprising the Great Lakes that together form Earth’s largest surface freshwater system. Thirty federally recognized tribes live in MW states and depend on this resource. Ceremonies honoring the waters as the life-blood of Mother Earth are held throughout the region. MW Tribes depend on the waters for subsistence and commercial fishing and for water-based plant materials for traditional crafts and artwork. Additionally, most MW tribes now operate gaming facilities and other tourism enterprises that rely heavily upon water for aesthetic and recreational uses. Many MW tribes consider climate change adaptation to be one of the most important long-range environmental issues for tribal nations. Michigan tribes, for instance, have worked with the state to negotiate and sign the May 12, 2004 Intergovernmental Accord between the Federally Recognized Indian Tribes in Michigan and the Governor of the State of Michigan Concerning Protection of Shared Water Resources and the June 11, 2009 Intergovernmental Accord between the Tribal Leaders of the Federally Recognized Indian Tribes in Michigan and the Governor of Michigan to Address the Crucial Issue of Climate Change. Biannual meetings are held between the state and tribes to discuss shared responsibilities and potential cooperative efforts. Impacts on MW tribes are diverse. Key impacts are related to flora and fauna important for diet, acknowledging clan responsibilities, social and mental health, and the exercise of treaty rights. Traditional healers in the region, for instance, have noted that lack of moisture and unreliable springtime temperatures have caused significant wild and cultivated crop losses. Wild rice (manoomin) is a sacred food of great importance to the Ojibwe of the Great Lakes area and may be detrimentally affected by climate change. In the Ojibwe Migration Story, The Great Mystery foretold the coming of the light-skinned race and instructed the Ojibwe to journey westward until they found ‘the food that grows on water.’ Since the 1900s, the loss of wild rice acreage to mining, dams, and other activities has been substantial. Warmer temperatures could cause further losses by reducing seed dormancy, favoring invasive, out-competing plants, and being conducive to brown spot disease. Water levels also influence rice survival. Extremely low Lake Superior levels in 2007 forced the Bad River Band of the Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa (WI) to cancel its annual wild rice harvest due to dramatic crop reductions. A 2012 flood led to near total wild rice crop failure on the Fond du Lac Reservation. Tribes in the Great Lakes area rely on treaty fishing, hunting, and gathering rights. The exercise of these rights requires considerable attention to environmental issues, including climate changes that affect species and habitats. These rights have been the subject of several court cases, which have resulted in decisions upholding tribal rights. Native American tribes need relevant and culturally appropriate monitoring, assessment, and research on their waters and lands and to develop or be included in the development of contingency, management, and mitigation plans. Tribes also greatly need actual implementation of projects. Although climate change preparedness can take place as a stand-alone effort, climate change considerations can be included as part of planning and implementation that is already occurring. Tribes or intertribal organizations must decide what constitutes relevant work. We propose research questions that might be significant for tribes based on the five impact categories. These include examples of science, policy, and social science questions related both to further identifying impacts and contributing climate and vulnerability factors and to identifying adaptation strategies."
Encroaching Tides: How Sea Level Rise and Tidal Flooding Threaten U.S. East and Gulf Coast Communities over the Next 30 Years
(2014) Spanger-Siegfried, Erika; Fitzpatrick, Melanie; Dahl, Kristina
This recent study examined coastal flooding along the Eastern and Gulf coasts of the US, and did not include the Great Lakes. However, the report concludes that extreme weather events and floods are occurring nationwide, and that other coastal communities are also at higher risk. Coastal communities and states, and the nation as a whole, need to prepare for near-term changes in tidal flooding, while working hard to minimize longer-term losses through efforts to both adapt to these changes and limit their extent. The report outlines steps to ensure more resilient coastal communities, which are extracted and reproduced below. “BUILDING COASTAL RESILIENCE IS A LOCAL IMPERATIVE . . . Over the next few decades—the time frame of our analysis—changes set in motion by our past and present heat-trapping emissions will largely drive the pace of sea level rise. The lag of several decades between the release of carbon into the atmosphere and the response of the ocean means that more tidal flooding is virtually guaranteed, and that communities need to act with urgency. Locally, there are many things we can do to help ensure enduring coastal communities, including: • Upgrade the built infrastructure in harm’s way. With help, communities can prioritize and incentivize flood-proofing of homes, neighborhoods, and key infrastructure, such as sewer and stormwater systems. • Avoid putting anything new in harm’s way. Communities can use a range of regulatory and planning tools to curtail new development in coastal locations subject to tidal flooding now and in the future. • Consider the risks and benefits of adaptation measures. Some measures to limit the impact of coastal flooding can provide multiple benefits, while others can alter shoreline dynamics and damage neighboring areas and ecosystems. Decision makers need to ensure that a rush to protect coastal communities builds broad-based resilience, rather than helping some areas while putting others at risk. • Develop a long-term vision. Communities that create a vision for both near-term protection and long-term resilience in the face of sea level rise—and craft plans for building better, safer, and more equitably—will be best positioned to thrive in the years ahead. . . . AND A NATIONAL ONE But local communities can’t go it alone—coastal challenges are too great, the costs are too steep, and too many people are at risk. Instead, we need a coordinated, well-funded national response to our country’s coastal vulnerability involving federal, state, and local collaboration. Federal and state governments can help build local resilience by supporting, incentivizing, regulating, and even mandating action. They can: • Build and maintain a coastal monitoring and data-sharing system equal to the threat. Key federal agencies can sustain and expand efforts to monitor and project sea level rise and flooding, and ensure that local decision makers have access to the data. • Encourage or mandate the use of good scientific information. Agencies can require that communities and other applicants for state and federal funds use the best available data, and demonstrate that new development and redevelopment projects can withstand projected tidal flooding and storm surges. • Support planning. More federal support for state and local planning and collaboration can accelerate efforts to build coastal resilience. • Mobilize funding. Adapting to sea level rise will require major, sustained investment. Federal policy makers need to develop new funding sources to support resilience-building efforts at the state and local level. • Improve risk management. The true costs of living on the coast are not reflected in the price of flood insurance and other risk management tools. But big increases in the cost of insurance are hard for many to bear. Federal incentives to reduce some property owners’ risks and costs can aid the transition to a more solvent flood insurance system and better risk management. • Ensure equitable investments. Federal investments in coastal resilience can prioritize households and communities with the greatest needs. • Reduce heat-trapping emissions. A near-term increase in sea level rise and tidal flooding may be locked in, but changes later this century and beyond are not fixed. To slow the rate of sea level rise—and enable coastal communities to adapt in affordable and manageable ways— we must reduce our global warming emissions.”
Floods of June 2012 in Northeastern Minnesota
(2012) Czuba, Christiana R; Fallon, James D; Kessler, Eric W
This report is a summary description of the 2012 flooding in the Fond du Lac region of Lake Superior from a meteorological and hydrologic perspective. The report notes that the extent and depth of flooding in communities can be used for flood recovery efforts. Key points are reproduced below. Abstract: “During June 19–20, 2012, heavy rainfall, as much as 10 inches locally reported, caused severe flooding across northeastern Minnesota. The floods were exacerbated by wet antecedent conditions from a relatively rainy spring, with May 2012 as one of the wettest Mays on record in Duluth. The June 19–20, 2012, rainfall event set new records in Duluth, including greatest 2-day precipitation with 7.25 inches of rain. The heavy rains fell on three major watersheds: the Mississippi Headwaters; the St. Croix, which drains to the Mississippi River; and Western Lake Superior, which includes the St. Louis River and other tributaries to Lake Superior. Widespread flash and river flooding that resulted from the heavy rainfall caused evacuations of residents, and damages to residences, businesses, and infrastructure. In all, nine counties in northeastern Minnesota were declared Federal disaster areas as a result of the flooding. Peak-of-record streamflows were recorded at 13 U.S. Geological Survey stream gages as a result of the heavy rainfall. Flood-peak gage heights, peak streamflows, and annual exceedance probabilities were tabulated for 35 U.S. Geological Survey stream gages. Flood-peak streamflows in June 2012 had annual exceedance probabilities estimated to be less than 0.002 (0.2 percent; recurrence interval greater than 500 years) for five stream gages, and between 0.002 and 0.01 (1 percent; recurrence interval greater than 100 years) for four stream gages. High-water marks were identified and tabulated for the most severely affected communities of Barnum (Moose Horn River), Carlton (Otter Creek), Duluth Heights neighborhood of Duluth (Miller Creek), Fond du Lac neighborhood of Duluth (St. Louis River), Moose Lake (Moose Horn River and Moosehead Lake), and Thomson (Thomson Reservoir outflow near the St. Louis River). Flood-peak inundation maps and water-surface profiles were produced for these six severely affected communities. The inundation maps were constructed in a geographic information system by combining high-water-mark data with high-resolution digital elevation model data. The flood maps and profiles show the extent and depth of flooding through the communities and can be used for flood response and recovery efforts by local, county, State, and Federal agencies.”
Grand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa: Creative Solutions for a Changing Environment
(2012) Grand Portage Bank of Lake Superior Chippewa
This report summarizes several environmental initiatives and climate change adaptation strategies including wind, community gardens, moose collaring, introduction of bison, etc. Some points are relevant to water resources and are extracted below: Summary: "The Grand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians resides in the northeast corner of Minnesota along Lake Superior. The dynamic environs of the region host a wide array of birds, fish, mammals, amphibians and reptiles. Unprecedented warming of Lake Superior in recent years suggests that climate change is taking effect around Grand Portage and is threatening local wildlife species. One of the Grand Portage Band’s major concerns is that climate change may lead to the loss of culturally significant subsistence species including moose and brook trout in the Lake Superior region. The tribe hopes that by investing in mitigation projects it can accomplish environmental and natural resources goals, achieve energy and food independence, contribute to carbon solutions, and reduce expenses to community members. In addition to existing mitigation projects and initiatives, the tribe is currently developing a comprehensive climate change adaptation and mitigation plan for tribal lands and resources. The plan addresses water quality, air quality, sustainable forestry, adaptation to shifts in fisheries and wildlife, sustainable food ventures, alternative energy development, and energy conservation programs. "Fisheries: To adapt to climate change, the tribe has shifted management of a 61-acre inland lake from a cold water (brook trout) fishery to a cool water fishery (yellow perch and walleye) through fish propagation and stocking. This occurred because warming temperatures in the lake reached critical lethal levels for brook trout causing complete collapse of the population. The Grand Portage Natural Resources Department adapted to the fishery collapse by choosing to develop a cool water fishery using yellow perch and walleye. The Grand Portage Native Fish Hatchery is now using re-circulating water systems to achieve the water temperatures needed for rearing cool water native fish species like walleye and lake sturgeon, in addition to rearing cold water brook trout for Lake Superior. This allows for better utilization and flexibility of the hatchery and stocking operations, while also providing higher growth rates for fish. The Grand Portage Band is also revising legacy contaminant (mercury) concentrations in fish tissue for consumption advisories for the Grand Portage Community. "Invasive Species Management: Aquatic invasive species (AIS) assessments for plants, fish, and invertebrates have been planned for water bodies in Grand Portage. The additional AIS surveys have stemmed from the climate change adaptation plan which noted that warmer water temperatures may increase or aid dispersal of AIS."
Hazards of Living on the Edge of Water: The Case of Minnesota Point, Duluth, Minnesota
(1989) Rasid, Harun; Hufferd, James
This peer-reviewed article summarizes an opinion survey of property owners on Minnesota Point and their views about the causes of water level fluctuation in Lake Superior. The study found that residents attributed lake level fluctuation on manipulation by the International Joint Commission, rather than other limnological, hydrologic or climate-related factors. Abstract: "Based on a systematic sample among the residents of Minnesota Point, a freshwater spit/baymouth bar on the southwest shore of Lake Superior, this study tests a number of hypotheses related to the perceived causes of lake level fluctuation and shore property hazards. The study found that despite significant differences in property setting and the nature of flood and erosion hazards between the lakeside and bayside of the spit, the majority of the residents perceived that their property hazards were induced by the manipulation of lake levels by the International Joint Commission (IJC). Consequently, one in every two respondents would like to lower the lake level by amounts ranging from 30cm to more than one m. The study points out the physical limitations of controlling water levels and recommends that greater attention should be given to shoreline management, which provide guidelines for protecting existing coastal structures and for developing minimum standards for future encroachment of the remaining unused sections of the shoreline. "The popular misperception of current levels of high water levels in the Great Lakes is an example of misplaced blame for natural phenomena. The regulation of lake levels by the IJC is postulated as the main cause of lake level fluctuation and very little attention is given to more important natural causes. Such an attitude is pervasive among coastal residents on the Great Lakes who tend to absolve themselves of any responsibility for occupying the hazardous edge of water by resorting to this explanation. “To cope with flood and erosion hazards, many property owners have made use of a range of protection measures, but most of them perceived lower lake levels as a higher priority than providing shore protection measures. Consequently, very few respondents would like to bear full responsibility for shore protection measures, despite the fact that they made the choice to live on the hazardous edge of water."
Hydrology and Water Quality of the Grand Portage Reservation, Northeastern Minnesota, 1991-2000
(2002) Winterstein, Thomas A
This is a technical geo-hydrologic study of water resources on the Grand Portage Reservation. There are few references to human uses of water resources, or to anthropogenic factors. The abstract with key points are extracted and reproduced below. Abstract: “The Grand Portage Reservation is located in northeastern Cook County, Minnesota at the boundary between Minnesota, USA, and Ontario, Canada. Between 1991 and 2000 the U.S. Geological Survey conducted a series of studies, with the cooperation with Grand Portage Band of Chippewa, to describe the water resources of the Grand Portage Reservation. Ground water moves primarily through fractures in the bedrock, probably in three ground-water systems: local, regional, and deep. Lake Superior is thought to be the discharge point for brines in the deep ground-water flow system. The watersheds in the Grand Portage Reservation are small and steep; consequently streams in the Grand Portage Reservation tend to be flashy. Lake stages rise and fall with rainfall. The pH of water in the Reservation is generally alkaline (pH greater than 7.0). The alkalinity of water in the Reservation is low. Concentrations of major ions are much greater in ground water than in spring water and surface water. The ionic composition of water in the Reservation differs depending upon the source of the water. Water from 11 of the 20 wells sampled are a calcium-sodium-chloride type. Water from wells GW-2, GW-7, and GW-11 had much greater specific conductance concentrations of major ions compared to the other wells. Some spring water (SP-1, SP-3, SP-4, SP-6, and SP-8) is calcium-bicarbonate type like surface water, whereas other spring water (SP-5 and SP-7) is similar to the calcium-sodium-chloride type occurring in samples from about one-half the wells. The major chemical constituents in surface water are bicarbonate, calcium, and magnesium. Measured tritium and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) concentrations in water samples from springs and wells were used to determine the recharge age of the sampled water. The recharge ages of two of the wells sampled for tritium are before 1953. The recharge ages of the remaining 10 samples for tritium are probably after 1970. The recharge ages of seven SF6 samples were between 1973 and 1998.”
Identifying Erosional Hotspots in Streams along the North Shore of Lake Superior, Minnesota using High-Resolution Elevation and Soils Data
(2013) Wick, Molly Jane
This is a University of Minnesota Water Resources Science master’s thesis describing original research to determine fluvial erosion in three coastal streams (Amity, Talmadge and French) of Minnesota’s Lake Superior shoreline. All three streams have elevated levels of turbidity, with potential for damage to fisheries. The goal of this project was to develop a GIS-based model using new, openly-available, high-resolution LiDAR datasets to predict erosional hotspots at a reach scale. The abstract summarizing the study’s key findings is extracted and reproduced below. Abstract: “Many streams on the North Shore of Lake Superior, Minnesota, USA, are impaired for turbidity driven by excess fine sediment loading. The goal of this project was to develop a GIS-based model using new, openly-available, high-resolution remote datasets to predict erosional hotspots at a reach scale, based on three study watersheds: Amity Creek, the Talmadge River, and the French River. The ability to identify erosional hotspots, or locations that are highly susceptible to erosion, using remote data would be helpful for watershed managers in implementing practices to reduce turbidity in these streams. “Erosion in streams is a balance between driving forces, largely controlled by topography; and resisting forces, controlled by the materials that make up a channel’s bed and banks. New high-resolution topography and soils datasets for the North Shore provide the opportunity to extract these driving and resisting forces from remote datasets and possibly predict erosion potential and identify erosional hotspots. We used 3-meter LiDAR-derived DEMs to calculate a stream power-based erosion index, to identify stream reaches with high radius of curvature, and to identify stream reaches proximal to high bluffs. We used the Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) Database to investigate changes in erodibility along the channel. Because bedrock exposure significantly limits erodibility, we investigated bedrock exposure using bedrock outcrop maps made available by the Minnesota Geological Survey (MGS, Hobbs, 2002; Hobbs, 2009), and by using a feature extraction tool to remotely map bedrock exposure using high-resolution air photos and LiDAR data. “Predictions based on remote data were compared with two datasets. Bank Erosion Hazard Index surveys, which are surveys designed to evaluate erosion susceptibility of banks, were collected along the three streams. In addition, a 500-year flood event during our field season gave us the opportunity to collect erosion data after a major event and validate our erosion hotspot predictions. Regressions between predictors and field datasets indicate that the most significant variables are bedrock exposure, the stream power-based erosion index, and bluff proximity. A logistic model developed using the three successful predictors for Amity Creek watershed was largely unsuccessful. A threshold-based model including the three successful predictors (stream power-based erosion index, bluff proximity, and bedrock exposure) was 70% accurate for predicting erosion hotspots along Amity Creek. The limited predictive power of the models stemmed in part from differences in locations of erosion hotspots in a single large-scale flood event and long-term erosion hotspots. The inability to predict site-specific characteristics like large woody debris or vegetation patterns makes predicting erosion hotspots in a given event very difficult. A field dataset including long-term erosion data may improve the model significantly. This model also requires high resolution bedrock exposure data which may limit its application to other North Shore streams.”
The Impacts of Climate Change on Tribal Traditional Foods
(2013) Lynn, Kathy; Daigle, John; Hoffman, Jennie; Lake, Frank; Michelle, Natalie; Ranco, Darren; Viles, Carson; Voggesser, Garrit; Williams, Paul
The tribal communities noted in this very interesting paper are from the Pacific Northwest. This paper is included in the study even though it is not specifically focused on Minnesota’s coastal resources, but is relevant in discussing modes and strategies that tribal leaders may pursue to address the impacts of climate change. Mention is made of wild rice and Ojibwe communities in Minnesota. Key points are extracted and reproduced below. Abstract: “American Indian and Alaska Native tribes are uniquely affected by climate change. Indigenous peoples have depended on a wide variety of native fungi, plant and animal species for food, medicine, ceremonies, community and economic health for countless generations. Climate change stands to impact the species and ecosystems that constitute tribal traditional foods that are vital to tribal culture, economy and traditional ways of life. This paper examines the impacts of climate change on tribal traditional foods by providing cultural context for the importance of traditional foods to tribal culture, recognizing that tribal access to traditional food resources is strongly influenced by the legal and regulatory relationship with the federal government, and examining the multi-faceted relationship that tribes have with places, ecological processes and species. Tribal participation in local, regional and national climate change adaption strategies, with a focus on food-based resources, can inform and strengthen the ability of both tribes and other governmental resource managers to address and adapt to climate change impacts. "American Indian and Alaska Native tribes face unique and disproportionate challenges from climate change that are not yet widely understood in academic or policy arenas. This paper explores one of these challenges in particular—the impact of climate change on traditional foods and the reality that 1) tribal access to resources is strongly influenced by the legal and regulatory relationship that tribes have with the federal government, and 2) tribes have a unique and multi-faceted relationship with places, ecological processes, and species. These frameworks shape tribal responses to climate change. “Water is held sacred by many indigenous peoples (Cozzetto et al.), and considered by some to be a traditional food... Climate change impacts on water temperature and availability will also have significant impacts on tribal traditional foods. Already, the lack of water is among one of the leading causes for the decline in the ability to grow corn and other crops... In the Great Lakes region, warming winters and changes in water level are crippling the ability of wild rice to grow and thrive in its traditional range. Wild rice is a pillar of cultural health for the Anishnaabeg people in Minnesota, and any decline in wild rice negatively affects their well-being. In response to threats facing wild rice, the Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Tribe has begun trying to address potential hydrological changes. In the early 1900s, settlers built ditches to drain the land for agricultural purposes, resulting in negative impacts to the watershed. The Fond du Lac are now building dams at ditch flow points to keep water levels stable and prevent extreme changes in water level that would negatively affect wild rice harvests. “Climate and ecosystems change over time. Paleoclimate, archaeology, and ethno-ecological research provide a foundation for understanding how climate, environmental productivity and tribal food utilization strategies evolved. Historical evidence demonstrates the rate of climatic change experienced within past environments and the accompanying tribal food security systems that occurred in response to these changes. Although the rate of change experienced was not as rapid as contemporary conditions, tribes historically experienced significant climate changes that affected ecosystems and food-based resources, requiring tribal cultures to strategically adapt and respond to survive. “Tribes may enter government-to-government agreements to increase their role in local resource management, to access additional areas to gather traditional foods, or lease and buy lands that ensure sustained access to traditional foods. Tribes may also exchange information and identify different technologies to access, acquire, process, and store foods. Additionally, tribes can develop formal and informal agreements with other tribes to grant or request access to traditional foods that may now only be found on one of their reservations. Tribes may have to consider diversifying their food-based resources and possibly adopting and utilizing new animals, plants, or fungi. “Addressing climate change through the knowledge, experiences, and policy contexts of indigenous peoples provides a powerful counter-point to the lack of effective global climate responses. As indigenous peoples may experience some of the harshest impacts of climate change, they can also lead the way in creative solutions for adaptation and ethical policy strategies. “Climate change impacts on tribal traditional foods should be viewed in the context of historical and cultural tribal relationships with places, wildlife, and plants, as well as in the landscape of the treaties, federal policies, and federal trust responsibilities and regulations in which they exist. Moreover, tribes view climate change adaptation in light of their reciprocal relations to care for and respect natural resources. As a result of these relationships of reciprocity and responsibility between tribes and nature and existing policies, Indian tribes’ vulnerability to climate change, and the adaptation strategies they adopt are multi-faceted and deeply rooted in a complex historical context. As sovereign governments, tribes have the authority to identify and implement adaptation strategies, and attempt to influence and strengthen the climate change protocols of other governments. “The various adaptive practices tribal practitioners and communities employ may enable managers to institute changes in policies, regional strategies, and resource regulation/conservation that enable ecosystems to respond more favorably to climate change. Tribal participation in local, regional and national climate change adaption frameworks and strategies, with a focus on food-based resources, can assist with prioritizing research and management directions. “Under extreme and rapid conditions of severe change at different ecological scales, western scientists and managers may need to partner with tribal scientists, managers, harvesters, and communities to explore innovative approaches to addressing climate change impacts. Tribal participation in climate change research, policy development and planning can help identify more solutions that fully consider tribal cultural values. Climate change will not obey the jurisdictional boundaries between tribal, private, state, and federal lands. As such, meaningful government-to-government relationships and collaboration will be vital to address the climate change impacts to the traditional foods, and to the wildlife, plants, and habitats valued by tribes and other Americans."
An Integrated Approach to Assessing Multiple Stressors for Coastal Lake Superior
(2011) Niemi, Gerald J; Reavie, Euan; Peterson, Gregory S; Kelly, John R; Johnston, Carol A; Johnson, Lucinda B; Howe, Robert W; Host, George; Hollenhorst, Thomas; Danz, Nick; Ciborowski, Jan H; Brown, Terry; Brady, Valerie; Axler, Richard P
This peer-reviewed article summarizes research conducted under the Great Lakes Environmental Indicators (GLEI) project initiated by the authors in 2001. The authors assessed the status of Lake Superior’s coastal ecosystem relative to over 200 environmental variables collected from GIS data sets for the enture US Great Lakes basin. These were assessed using gradients including atmosphereic deposition, agriculture, human population and development, land cover, point source pollution, soils and a cumulative stress index. Relationships of biological assemblages of birds, diatoms, fish and invertebrates, wetland plants, soils and stable isotopes to these gradients were then assessed. Key findings are extracted and reproduced below. Biological indicators can be used both to estimate ecological condition and to suggest plausible causes of ecosystem degradation across the U.S. Great Lakes coastal region. Here we use data on breeding bird, diatom, fish, invertebrate, and wetland plant communities to develop robust indicators of ecological condition of the U.S. Lake Superior coastal zone. Sites were selected as part of a larger, stratified random design for the entire U.S. Great Lakes coastal region, covering gradients of anthropogenic stress defined by over 200 stressor variables (e.g. agriculture, altered land cover, human populations, and point source pollution). A total of 89 locations in Lake Superior were sampled between 2001 and 2004 including 31 sites for stable isotope analysis of benthic macroinvertebrates, 62 sites for birds, 35 for diatoms, 32 for fish and macroinvertebrates, and 26 for wetland vegetation. A relationship between watershed disturbance metrics and 15N levels in coastal macroinvertebrates confirmed that watershed-based stressor gradients are expressed across Lake Superior’s coastal ecosystems, increasing confidence in ascribing causes of biological responses to some landscape activities. Several landscape metrics in particular—agriculture, urbanization, human population density, and road density—strongly influenced the responses of indicator species assemblages. Conditions were generally good in Lake Superior, but in some areas watershed stressors produced degraded conditions that were similar to those in the southern and eastern U.S. Great Lakes. The following indicators were developed based on biotic responses to stress in Lake Superior in the context of all the Great Lakes: (1) an index of ecological condition for breeding bird communities, (2) diatom-based nutrient and solids indicators, (3) fish and macroinvertebrate indicators for coastal wetlands, and (4) a non-metric multidimensional scaling for wetland plants corresponding to a cumulative stress index. These biotic measures serve as useful indicators of the ecological condition of the Lake Superior coast; collectively, they provide a baseline assessment of selected biological conditions for the U.S. Lake Superior coastal region and prescribe a means to detect change over time.” Key points: “In general, the U.S. Great Lakes coastal region of Lake Superior shows greater overall stress in the southern regions compared with relatively low overall stress in the northern regions. These patterns are primarily due to agricultural land use, higher human population densities, and point sources in the eastern and western portions on the south shore, while the north shore at the western end of Lake Superior is primarily forested with relatively sparse human population densities. Coastal regions of Lake Superior can be found at each of the extremes of the disturbance gradients. This includes relatively pristine watersheds in the northern regions with low human population densities and little agriculture that contrast with regions of relatively high populations with industrial activity such as Duluth-Superior in Minnesota-Wisconsin and Sault Ste. Marie Michigan at the other end of the gradient. The U.S. Lake Superior coastal region varies widely in the degree of human-related stress; generally, levels of stress decrease from south to north but with considerable variation, especially along the southern shore due to local agricultural activity and the presence of several population and industrial centers. In spite of a lack of latitudinal variation, there is human-induced, watershed scale variability across the Lake Superior coast. Compared to the other Great Lakes, Lake Superior coastal fish communities had more generally intolerant fish and more turbidity intolerant fish. Coastal fish community composition reflected the higher levels of suspended solids associated with human alteration to watersheds. The most disturbed sites on Lake Superior had greater proportions of non-native species and fewer bottom-feeding taxa.
Northeast Minnesota Flash Flood Disaster - Economic Development Impact Study
(2013) Arrowhead Regional Development Commission
ARDC conducted a study to determine economic development impacts of the 2012 flood. ARDC collected information from all levels of government and held small group interviews to analyze gaps in data and identify lessons learned. Recommendations are paraphrased and summarized below. “A. Develop and Mobilize Micro Loans and Micro Grants for Disaster Response and Recovery. Micro loans and micro grants have been identified as a best practice for providing quick assistance to small businesses. The Northland Foundation’s Business Flood Recovery Fund has been cited as one of the most successful local response efforts following the 2012 floods. The program should be evaluated to learn how the region can keep the basic infrastructure of this program in place and how other groups can duplicate it or enhance it so that it can be remobilized even quicker in the aftermath of a future disaster. Micro loans should be explored as a source of assistance immediately following a disaster. Regional economic development funds, revolving loan funds and additional commercial lenders should examine their capacity and adopt disaster recovery lending programs that could be enacted immediately after future disasters. B. Maximize Planning and Zoning for Disaster Mitigation, Response, Recovery and Resiliency. 1. Land Use Planning: Decisions made before and after a disaster affect the resiliency and recovery of a community in the event of a disaster. Communities that integrate disaster resiliency into land use planning and development decisions can mitigate potential disaster impacts by: a. Integrating a hazard element into Comprehensive Plans, either as a stand-alone section or in discussion of other plan sections such as housing, infrastructure, and economic development. b. Assessing disaster vulnerability of sites in development plans. c. Encouraging development in less hazardous areas. d. Minimizing or mitigating vulnerable types of development in hazardous areas. e. Reducing disaster vulnerability through land use and zoning regulations. 2. Economic Development Planning. Recovery dictates long term success. The return of jobs, tourism, and capital investments are dependent on housing recovery, infrastructure restoration, environmental restoration, and social service provision. Communities should integrate disaster resiliency into economic development planning by: a. Assessing the unique needs and challenges for small businesses, large employers, economic diversification, and workforce/residents in the face of a disaster. b. Prioritizing economic development projects that are disaster resilient and fill a need in the post disaster community. c. Encouraging all physical projects to address disaster resiliency in the planning stage. 3. Infrastructure and Public Facilities: Restoration of infrastructure and public facilities is a prerequisite for recovery. Communities should prioritize long term infrastructure needs to take advantage of opportunity to upgrade, mitigate, or relocate infrastructure following a disaster. In the rush to rebuild, communities should be prepared to avoid repeating mistakes or missing opportunities to develop systems that will serve their residents and businesses better in the future. A disaster resiliency factor should be added to routine capital project planning. 4. Planning and Recovery Facilitation: To support community planning for and recovery from disasters, ARDC is available to work with communities on a project basis to: a. Offer a forum to convene diverse stakeholders and facilitate discussion and planning initiatives around the issues of economic resiliency and preparedness. b. Provide communities and businesses with regional demographic and economic data, hazard vulnerability and mitigation data, and disaster impact data. c. Establish familiarity with economic and community recovery funding sources and programs. d. Explore how ARDC’s revolving loan fund can be used to assist disaster impacted businesses. C. Improve information cataloging for long - term recovery and resiliency ARDC found that a lack of a one - stop portal for information on the evolving economic impact of the disaster is a challenge to long term planning and recovery efforts. A one - stop data repository may be best set up at the county and state levels. An up – to - date data repository can be useful for: • Developing and securing funding for recovery and resiliency programs and assessing the effectiveness of mitigation programs. (TIF districts, redevelopment programs, business continuity planning) • Establishing baseline to assess the long -term issues presented by future disasters in the region or elsewhere in the state. • Developing new local, regional, and state policies and programs. • Developing disaster profiles for use in community planning. • Developing tools and metrics for evaluating progress against set goals, objectives and milestones.
Northeast Minnesota Wetland Mitigation Inventory and Assessment, Phase 1: Final Inventory Report
(2009) Barr Engineering
"The Northeast Minnesota Wetland Mitigation Inventory and Assessment Project is a two phase project to identify potential wetland mitigation opportunities located in northeastern Minnesota and analyze those opportunities to develop goals and priorities. Both phases of the project are designed to only address the technical aspects of wetland mitigation, analysis of policy related issues are beyond the scope of this project. Phase 1 is designed to identify potential wetland mitigation sites and inventory and assess mineland wetlands and Phase 2 will assess siting recommendations based on priorities, including but not limited to: mitigation types/methods, water quality, proximity to impaired waters, technical feasibility and wetland functions. The wetland mitigation inventory has been conducted with a watershed emphasis to identify watershed and water quality improvement opportunities within the study area. Baseline data was collected to develop an initial understanding of the existing wetland resources and a regional assessment was conducted of potential opportunities for wetland restoration, enhancement, preservation and creation. The intent of this study is to use existing data to identify potential wetland mitigation opportunities and verify and assess the technical feasibility of a limited sampling of sites in the field. Based on the technical committee and stakeholder feedback, four general categories of mitigation methods were evaluated: wetland restoration, preservation, enhancement, and creation. A GIS model analysis was conducted utilizing existing data sources to identify potential wetland mitigation opportunities within the project area. Potential wetland mitigation sites were identified throughout the study area... Approximately three percent of the potential mitigation opportunities spread across 17 of the 18 counties have been evaluated in the field to determine the accuracy of the modeling methods and to sample landowner interest. Northeastern Minnesota faces unique challenges for wetland mitigation due to several factors, namely: • The presence of extensive wetland resources, • Approximately 57 percent of land is in public (federal and state) and tribal ownership, • Few established wetland mitigation banks currently exist, • A perceived lack of traditional wetland mitigation opportunities exist, and • The need for approximately 550 acres of wetland mitigation is projected annually in the foreseeable future. An ad hoc committee formulated a strategy which included five main recommendations: • Conduct a regional wetland mitigation inventory to determine the availability of wetland mitigation opportunities in the region. • Conduct a regional mitigation siting study to summarize the results of the regional inventory and help to streamline mitigation planning in the region. • Develop a northeastern Minnesota wetland bank cooperative – a third party to coordinate, promote, and develop wetland banking within the region. • Compile up-to-date knowledge or research on non-traditional mitigation methods • Update the National Wetlands Inventory for northeastern Minnesota Following discussions with northeastern Minnesota legislators, a legislative bill was introduced to fund the regional wetland mitigation inventory and the mitigation siting study. In 2007, after receiving stakeholders’ testimony the Legislature funded the inventory and the siting study recommendations through a two-year appropriation to the Board of Water and Soil Resources (BWSR) for 2008-2009."
Preparing for the Inevitable: US Climate Change Preparation
(2013) Ernenwein, David
This study does not specifically target Minnesota’s coastal communities. However, in light of the 2012 flooding in the Fond du Lac basins, it highlights the need to anticipate and prepare for extreme weather events and flooding in the future in the region. The abstract is reproduced below. Abstract: “There is growing consensus in the scientific community that the global climate is changing. Increasing average global temperatures are expected to increase both the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, which will affect human civilization. However, these events do not need to become disasters. Analysis of past extreme weather disasters in the United States shows that failures in policy, specifically in terms of disaster preparedness, are the real culprit and not the actual weather event. Given the increasing destructiveness of storms and the projected increase in frequency, it makes formulating a coherent and effective national response a priority.”
Urban Flooding in the Great Lakes States: A Municipality/Utility Survey Report
(2012-07) Center for Neighborhood Technology
As part of our Smart Water for Smart Regions initiative, the Center for Neighborhood Technology (CNT) is working with communities across Great Lakes states to alleviate urban flooding. The purpose of this survey is to develop an understanding of the effect of flooding on Great Lakes cities and to identify strategies to manage the problem. By providing a baseline of practices and policies among municipal stormwater/sewer utilities, the survey results are intended to support collaborative initiatives for dealing with flooding. Our survey, the first of its kind in the Great Lakes, found that municipalities and stormwater utilities face significant challenges. The 30 survey respondents serve 330 municipalities with a population of approximately 19.7 million people—nearly 23 percent of the total population of the Great Lakes states and province.4 All 30 respondents received flooding complaints, with 80 percent characterizing the annual number of complaints as medium or large. Stormwater is flooding into people’s backyards, streets, and parking lots (90 percent of respondents said), into the interior of buildings through sewer backups (83.3 percent), and through the walls of homes and buildings (46.7 percent).

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