Browsing by Subject "Acer saccharum"

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Advancing Technology to Manufacture Trusses From Hardwood Lumber
(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2001-09) Brashaw, Brian K; Vatalaro, Robert J; Lackore, Michael; Ross, Robert J; Wang, Xiping; Forsman, John
Low-grade hardwood lumber is abundant across the Lake States and the Northeast United States. This product has historically been used as pallet lumber, crating material, and firewood with values of $200-$300 per thousand board feet. Further, several low-valued hardwood species have become prevalent in these areas through past forestry practices. In order to actively manage the forests for historical species, new and higher value markets must be established. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the use of sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and red maple (Acer rubrum) as structural lumber in metal plate pitched and parallel chord trusses. Groups of trusses were manufactured with both chords and webs from hardwood lumber, from softwood chords and hardwood webs and from chords and webs from softwood lumber. Testing was completed according to ANSl/fPI 2-1995, Standard for Testing Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses. Results showed that both pitched and parallel chord trusses manufactured from hardwood lumber had strength and stiffness that was equivalent to or better than softwood trusses manufactured from spruce-pine-fir (SPF) and southern yellow pine (SYP) lumber. Trusses manufactured with SPF chords and hardwood webs had properties that were equivalent to or better than complete SPF trusses. The findings indicate that the potential use of low-grade hardwood lumber as truss lumber would result in large volumes of this material being utilized in a higher value application.
Are shade tolerance, survival, and growth linked? Low light and nitrogen effects on hardwood seedlings
(1996) Walters, Michael B; Reich, Peter B
Variation in shade tolerance is a primary mechanism driving succession in northern deciduous forests. However, little is known about interspecific differences in the traits responsible for shade tolerance. Is shade tolerance due to the ability to grow or survive in deep shade, or both? How do plant morphology and photosynthesis relate to growth in shade? Is low light the sole critical stress determining differences in "shade tolerance" or do below ground resources interact with low light to affect growth and survival? In this study we address these questions for seedlings of Betula papyrifera Marsh., Betula alleghaniensis Britton, Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch, Acer saccharum Marsh., and Quercus rubra L. grown for 2 yr in outdoor shade houses in a complete factorial of low light (2 and 8% open sky) and nitrogen (forest soil and forest soil plus 200 kg N.ha-'.yr-'). For these seedlings we examined effects of light and nitrogen on the interrelationships among survival, growth, and shade tolerance and explored the physiological bases of shade tolerance by examining the relationship of plant morphology and photosynthesis to growth. Nitrogen amendments did not have a significant effect on any plant trait at either light level. In 8% light, growth and survival were highest for shade-intolerant Betula papyrifera and mid-tolerant Betula alleghaniensis, lower for shade-tolerant Ostrya and Acer, and lowest for disturbance-adapted Quercus. In 2% light, species rankings reversed as Ostrya and Acer had higher growth and survival than the other species. Second-year survival was strongly related to 1st-yr growth (P < 0.001), whereas relationships with 1st-yr plant mass and 1styr absolute growth rates were weak. Therefore, survival of shade-tolerant species at 2% light was related to their maintenance of positive growth, whereas intolerant species had growth near zero and high rates of mortality. In both 2 and 8% light photosynthetic rates on mass (but not area) bases and the proportion of the plant in leaves (leaf area ratio and leaf mass ratio) were positively related to growth. Greater rates of growth and survival for shade-tolerant species in very low light, and for intolerant species in higher light, suggest that there is a species-based trade-off between maximizing growth in high light and minimizing the light compensation point for growth. This trade-off may be an important mechanism driving forest community dynamics in northern hardwood forests.
Becoming less tolerant with age: sugar maple, shade, and ontogeny
(Springer, 2015) Sendall, Kerrie; Lusk, Christopher; Reich, Peter B
Although shade tolerance is often assumed to be a fixed trait, recent work suggests ontogenetic changes in the light requirements of tree species. We determined the influence of gas exchange, biomass distribution, and self-shading on ontogenetic variation in the instantaneous aboveground carbon balance of Acer saccharum. We quantified the aboveground biomass distributions of 18 juveniles varying in height and growing in low light in a temperate forest understory in Minnesota, USA. Gas exchange rates of leaf and stem tissues were measured, and the crown architecture of each individual was quantified. The YPLANT program was used to estimate the self-shaded fraction of each crown and to model net leaf-level carbon gain. Leaf respiration and photosynthesis per gram of leaf tissue increased with plant size. In contrast, stem respiration rates per gram of stem tissue declined, reflecting a shift in the distribution of stem diameter sizes from smaller (with higher respiration) to larger diameter classes. However, these trends were outweighed by ontogenetic increases in self-shading (which reduces the net photosynthesis realized) and stem mass fraction (which increases the proportion of purely respiratory tissue) in terms of influence on net carbon exchange. As a result, net carbon gain per gram of aboveground plant tissue declined with increasing plant size, and the instantaneous aboveground light compensation point increased. When estimates of root respiration were included to model whole-plant carbon gain and light compensation points, relationships with plant size were even more pronounced. Our findings show how an interplay of gas exchange, self-shading, and biomass distribution shapes ontogenetic changes in shade tolerance.
Changes in hardwood forest understory plant communities in response to European earthworm invasions
(Ecological Society of America, 2006) Hale, Cindy M; Frelich, Lee E; Reich, Peter B
European earthworms are colonizing earthworm-free northern hardwood forests across North America. Leading edges of earthworm invasion provide an opportunity to investigate the response of understory plant communities to earthworm invasion and whether the species composition of the earthworm community influences that response. Four sugar maple-dominated forest sites with active earthworm invasions were identified in the Chippewa National Forest in north central Minnesota, USA. In each site, we established a 30 × 150 m sample grid that spanned a visible leading edge of earthworm invasion and sampled earthworm populations and understory vegetation over four years. Across leading edges of earthworm invasion, increasing total earthworm biomass was associated with decreasing diversity and abundance of herbaceous plants in two of four study sites, and the abundance and density of tree seedlings decreased in three of four study sites. Sample points with the most diverse earthworm species assemblage, independent of biomass, had the lowest plant diversity. Changes in understory plant community composition were most affected by increasing biomass of the earthworm species Lumbricus rubellus. Where L. rubellus was absent there was a diverse community of native herbaceous plants, but where L. rubellus biomass reached its maximum, the herbaceous-plant community was dominated by Carex pensylvanica and Arisaema triphyllum and, in some cases, was completely absent. Evidence from these forest sites suggests that earthworm invasion can lead to dramatic changes in the understory community and that the nature of these changes is influenced by the species composition of the invading earthworm community.
Demonstration of Hardwood Trusses in Residential Construction Projects
(University of Minnesota Duluth, 2002-01) Brashaw, Brian K; Vatalaro, Robert J; Ross, Robert J; Wang, Xiping
The hardwood lumber industry is a key component of the forest products industry in the Lake States and Northeast regions of the United States. Two of the primary lumber species include sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and red maple (Acer rubrum). High grade lumber from these species has an extremely high value, often exceeding $1,500/thousand board feet (M bdft). Lower grades of maple including pallet lumber usually sell for $200 to $275/M bdft. A cooperative Lake States research team developed the technical and economic background necessary for using low grade maple as structural components in metal-plate trusses and prefabricated wood I-joists. Specific projects that have been completed addressed the following research topics: lumber yield and recovery, lumber properties, acce\erated drying schedules, truss plate fasteners, truss fabrication and testing, I-joist fabrication and testing, and :financial assessments. An important step prior to implementation was the development of several demonstration projects using structurally graded maple lumber. A relationship was established with the Duluth Chapter of Habitat for Humanity International and a demonstration project was developed to use the red maple lumber in trusses for two houses with attached garag~s that were to be built during the summer of 2001. To minimize concerns oflumber length and s_pecies, we chose to use red maple as truss webs with spruce-pine-fir (SPF) chords in the house section and red maple for both the truss chords and webs in the attached garage. Red maple cants were obtained, sawn into 2- by 4-in. dimension lumber and dried using an accelerated kiln schedule. Structural grading was completed using an E-computer with visual overrides for #2 a11d #3 grade lumber. Truss designs were completed and sealed by a professional engineer and the trusses were manufactured by Kylmala Truss in Duluth, Minnesota. Natural Resources Research Institute (NRRI) personnel were involved in the setting of the trusses. There were no specific problems noted from the use of red maple in either the house or garage trusses. A second demonstration project was designed to use sugar maple lumber as web stock in a standard storage truss in a garage built in rural Duluth, Minnesota. Kiln-dried hard maple remaining from earlier projects was graded using a commercial E-computer. The lumber was then provided to Kylmala Truss for use in manufacturing a 6:12 pitch garage truss that spanned 26 ft. The trusses were set by NRRI personnel and covered with oriented strandboard (OSB) sheathing. There were no specific problems or challenges identified from using hard maple in the trusses, although it was difficult to hand nail siding to the hard maple web on the gable end trusses.
Investigation of soil and plant characteristics across a continuum of non-native earthworm invasion in hardwood forests, Tettegouche State Park, MN USA
(2013-06) Bennett, Zachary David
Invasive earthworms cause profound changes in forest floor thickness, soil structure and chemistry, and plant community composition within cold temperate hardwood forests. However, few studies have examined these effects across a continuum of earthworm invasion and in conjunction with canopy disturbance. The research objectives of this thesis were to determine the changes of earthworm invasion on the upper soil horizon's thickness, gravimetric water content, potential horizon field capacity, and available nitrogen and phosphorus; and plant communities in hardwood forest sites within Tettegouche State Park, MN USA. All sites were uneven-aged, unmanaged northern hardwood forests of an approximate age of 225 years. The canopies were dominated by sugar maple and had experienced substantial canopy disturbance (9.7 - 20.5% opening) during an ice storm in spring 2009. Earthworms were sampled in the fall of 2010-2011. Each of the four sites were invaded by differing earthworm assemblages ranging from minimally invaded (1 species and average biomass of 0.1729 AFDgrams/m2) to heavily invaded (5 species and average biomass of 14.12 AFDgrams/m2). In the upper soil horizons O horizon thickness decreased and A horizon thickness increased with increasing earthworm richness and biomass. Mineral soil gravimetric water content was measured biweekly (May-August 2011) but did not differ among sites. Total potential horizon field capacity, including the O horizon, determined that 53-59% of the available water in a 12 cm deep core at field capacity is held in the O horizon. Availability of NO3 was significantly higher in the heavily invaded site compared to all other sites. Plant communities were assessed in the summer of 2009-2011, nonmetric multidimensional scaling was used to analyze the relationship of herbaceous plant species richness and percent cover to environmental variables and that species richness and diversity indices were positively correlated with O horizon thickness and negatively correlated with earthworm richness and biomass. The main conclusions of this study are that 1) moderate canopy disturbance had no affect on soil characteristics, or earthworms and plant communities; 2) earthworm assemblages (richness and biomass) were strongly correlated with changes in forest floor thickness, moisture holding capacity, nitrogen availability and plant community composition in these sugar maple forests, and 3) traditional exclusion of the O horizon when measuring water holding capacity in forest soils should be reconsidered given the large proportion of potential water holding capacity it provides, and is lost when a site is heavily invaded by earthworms. The implications of the loss of the O horizon and the associated loss of water holding capacity on ecosystem functions and biotic communities of hardwood forest systems need to be more fully explored.
Long-term Study of the Magney-Snively Old-Growth Northern Hardwood Forest, Duluth, Minnesota, USA
(2022-06) Schimpf, David J; Kelly, Julia A
Point-quarter measurements of trees and saplings made in a putatively old-growth Minnesota northern hardwood forest in 1961, 1980, and 2016 were analyzed by using plotless density-estimation methods, including a modified method that we developed. Stem densities of trees in 1980 and 2016 were higher than in 1961, and sapling stem density was much higher in 2016 than in each of the earlier years. Basal-area densities for both trees and trees-plus-saplings did not change significantly among years, but were higher for saplings in 2016 than in each of the other two years. Stem density and basal-area density of sugar maple increased in the tree stratum through time. The sugar maple tree population had a demographically stable size structure in each year. Sugar maple dominated the sapling stratum, increasing with time in relative densities and very strongly in absolute densities. Over the same time span yellow birch abundance declined in the tree stratum and mountain maple seemed to decline in the sapling stratum. Yellow birch mean individual size became larger with time. Basal-area densities estimated by the angle-gauge method in 2017 found standing-dead values to be about 8% of the live-stem values, with similar species compositions. Fallen large boles near the sample points in 2016 were more likely to be yellow birch than the large live trees were; in contrast, sugar maple was a smaller share of fallen large boles than of large live trees. Boles tended to have fallen toward the south, which did not match the directions in the record of strong wind gusts at Duluth International Airport. This old-growth ecosystem may hold at least 230 metric tons of organic carbon per hectare. Stem cores from red oaks showed little evidence of contamination from a steel mill that operated nearby prior to 1980, but have a somewhat elevated content of manganese. The Magney-Snively forest is an important complement to the other old-growth northern hardwoods remnants in the Lake Superior region, which differ from it by having a sizable representation of eastern hemlock.
Regional extent of an ecosystem engineer: Earthworm invasion in northern hardwood forests
(2007) Holdsworth, Andrew R; Frelich, Lee E; Reich, Peter B
The invasion of exotic earthworms into northern temperate and boreal forests previously devoid of earthworms is an important driver of ecosystem change. Earthworm invasion can cause significant changes in soil structure and communities, nutrient cycles, and the diversity and abundance of herbaceous plants. However, the regional extent and patterns of this invasion are poorly known. We conducted a regional survey in the Chippewa and Chequamegon National Forests, in Minnesota and Wisconsin, USA, respectively, to measure the extent and patterns of earthworm invasion and their relationship to potential earthworm introduction sites. We sampled earthworms, soils, and vegetation in 20 mature, sugar maple-dominated forest stands in each national forest and analyzed the relationship between the presence of five earthworm taxonomic groups, habitat variables, and distance to the nearest potential introduction site. Earthworm invasion was extensive but incomplete in the two national forests. Four of the six earthworm taxonomic groups occurred in 55–95% of transects; however 20% of all transects were invaded by only one taxonomic group that has relatively minor ecological effects. Earthworm taxonomic groups exhibited a similar sequence of invasion found in other studies: Dendrobaena > Aporrectodea = Lumbricus juveniles > L. rubellus > L. terrestris. Distance to the nearest road was the best predictor of earthworm invasion in Wisconsin while distance to the nearest cabin was the best predictor in Minnesota. These data allow us to make preliminary assessments of landscape patterns of earthworm invasion. As an example, we estimate that 82% of upland mesic hardwood stands in the Wisconsin region are likely invaded by most taxonomic groups while only 3% are unlikely to be invaded at present. Distance to roads and cabins provides a coarse-scale predictor of earthworm invasion to focus stand-level assessments that will help forest managers better understand current and potential forest conditions and identify uninvaded areas that could serve as important refugia for plant species threatened by earthworm invasion.
A study of herbaceous vegetation in Chequamegon - Nicolet National Forest: relationship of earthworms, white-tailed deer browsing and Carex pensylvanica Lam
(2014-12) Ojanen, Paul Thomas
Invasive earthworms alter multiple forest components. By accelerating litter decomposition, they alter nutrient flows, soil composition and vegetative communities. White -tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are known to alter vegetative communities by selective browsing; severity varies with population density and affects plant community population and composition. Both factors are associated with reduced vegetative community richness and dominance by graminoids. In this study, 101 randomly selected Northern Mesic Hardwood Sugar Maple sites in the Chequamegon - Nicolet National Forest were sampled for vegetation, earthworm occurrence and browsing intensity. Over three years, eighty-two percent of sites were positive for earthworms; in two non-drought years, ninety percent of sites were positive. Non-metric Multi-dimensional Scaling (NMDS) and Multiple Response Permutation Procedure (MRPP) found divergent communities; a Carex pensylvanica Lam dominated community associated with earthworm invasion and strongly linked to Lumbricus rubellus presence, and remaining Acer saccharum seedling stands associated with reduced earthworm impacts. Additionally Carex pensylvanica was strongly linked to Lumbricus rubellus presence by Indicator Species Analysis. Lumbricus rubellus invaded sites had both reduced species richness and vegetative cover. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browsing was found to be heavy and extensive throughout both forests, impacting Acer saccharum regeneration and further driving graminoid dominance. The results indicate earthworm invasion is geographically extensive and a principal driver of Carex pensylvanica understory dominance and reduced Acer saccharum regeneration.
Temperature and leaf nitrogen affect performance of plant species at range overlap
(Wiley, 2015) Fisichelli, Nicholas A; Stefanski, Artur; Frelich, Lee E; Reich, Peter B
Plant growth and survival near range limits are likely sensitive to small changes in environmental conditions. Warming temperatures are causing range shifts and thus changes in species composition within range-edge ecotones; however, it is often not clear how temperature alters performance. Through an observational field study, we assessed temperature and nitrogen effects on survival and growth of co-occurring temperate (Acer saccharum) and boreal (Abies balsamea) saplings across their overlapping range limits in the Great Lakes region, USA. Across sampled ranges of soil texture, soil pH, and precipitation, it appears that temperature affects leaf nitrogen for A. saccharum near its northern range limit (R2 = 0.64), whereas there was no significant leaf N ~ temperature relationship for A. balsamea. Higher A. saccharum leaf N at warm sites was associated with increased survival and growth. Abies balsamea survival and growth were best modeled with summer temperature (negative relationship); performance at warm sites depended upon light availability, suggesting the shade-tolerance of this species near its southern range limits may be mediated by temperature. The ranges of these two tree species overlap across millions of hectares, and temperature and temperature-mediated nitrogen likely play important roles in their relative performance.
Tree rings detect earthworm invasions and their effects in northern Hardwood forests
(2010) Larson, Evan R; Kipfmueller, Kurt F; Hale, Cindy M; Frelich, Lee E; Reich, Peter B
Invasions of European earthworms into the forests of northern North America are causing dramatic changes in forest floor structure, vegetation communities, biogeochemical cycling, and site hydrology. However, long-term studies on the effects of invasive earthworms are limited because little data exist on the timing and rate of earthworm invasion at specific sites. We successfully used tree rings to identify the timing of earthworm invasions and the effects of earthworm activity on the Acer saccharum overstory of two recently invaded sites in northern Minnesota, thereby establishing a method to date earthworm invasions at other sites. In addition to identifying a tree-ring signature related to earthworm invasion, we found trees growing in invaded conditions were more sensitive to drought than trees growing in earthworm-free conditions. Increased drought sensitivity by A. saccharum has important implications for possible range shifts under climate change scenarios that include increasing drought frequency and severity.

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