Hmong Green Skirt Analysis A Thesis SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Kachia C. Lee IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS Dr. Elizabeth Bye, Advisor August 2024 © Kachia C Lee, 2024 Acknowledgments Thank you to my husband, Andy, who supported and always pushed me to do my best. Thank you to my father who came to the United States, knowing little English and obtaining a PhD. Thank you for being a huge inspiration to me. Thank you to my mother who believed in me, shared stories and information. Also thanks to her for letting me borrow her traditional Hmong clothing for research and helped with translation. Thank you to my family, especially my sisters, for their guidance and listening to me talk about my passion for my research. Thank you to my mother-in-law and father-in-law who supported me. Thank you to my advisor, Dr. Bye, and my committee Bee Vang-Moua and Dr. Griffin for their support and guidance. i Dedication: For the Hmong Community, with hope that this will reach future generations and inspire them to research and learn more about Hmong traditional textiles and cultural dress. ii Abstract The Hmong skirt or “daim tiab'' is an object that is a part of the Hmong traditional attire. Although the Hmong skirt was traditionally worn for everyday wear, in today’s global society traditional Hmong clothing is now worn for events such as weddings and the annual Hmong New Year. Western clothing became highly practiced because of the convenience over traditional Hmong clothing. The significance of Hmong cultural dress is determined by the different groups in the Hmong community and each group has cultural dress that identifies them. The skirt is most noticeable from a distant view and it is the easiest to spot thus, the Hmong skirt plays an important role in identifying which dialect the wearer speaks. Hmong history and cultural information is passed down by oral traditions. There is little published material or academic research on Hmong traditional textiles and cultural wear, which is why this research is so important. Dialect in the Hmong community is quite complex because there are a number of different regions or locations for the Hmong throughout all the different regions they migrated to. The Hmong diaspora represent many dialects of the Hmong from Thailand, Laos and China, and local regional dialects have not been early researched. The two most common dialects are Hmong Green (Hmong Leng or published in early articles about Hmong as Hmong Blue) and Hmong White in the United States. The complexity of categorizing and naming Hmong groups, not only are given names after the clothing they wear but also given names based on their dialect of speech. Some of these names or titles are as follows: Hmong Chinese, Hmong Stripe, Hmong Black, Hmong Flowery, and more. While some of these names are not necessarily due to dialect, but due to the region they live in or clothing they wear. iii For example, Hmong stripe is the name of white dialect speaking Hmong with stripe textiles on their sleeves living in a vast number of regions in China and Southeast Asia, including other countries they may have migrated to. Among these groups, there are different types of Hmong attire, accessories, and designs. Focusing on skirts, each dialect group may have one or more types of skirts that represent the dialect. Today, a Hmong skirt plays a different role. It is worn for its beauty and design quality, collection, fashion or academic purposes. Some women may wear it to identify themselves as “Hmong”, but it does not necessarily mean they are identifying themselves as a specific Hmong dialect group. Hmong skirts are still the most popular item to purchase or receive as a gift. To understand the significance of the Hmong skirt, an analysis of skirts from the Hmong Green dialect from participants who live in the Twin Cities area in Minnesota is presented. The reason white dialect skirts are not utilized in this research is because white dialect skirts are made of hemp with no specific cultural design or no motif. iv Table of Contents: Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... i Dedication.......................................................................................................................................ii Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables. ...............................................................................................................................vii List of Figures…............................................................................................................................vii Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………...…………….1 Research Interest………………………………………………………………...……………..2 Purpose and Research Questions………………………………………………...…………….3 Definition of Hmong Terminology…………………………………………………...………..3 Chapter 2: Review of Literature…………………………………………………….…………….6 History of Hmong……………………………………………………………………………...6 Hmong Cultural Dress…………………………………………………………………….…...8 The Social Significance in Hmong Dress……………………………………………….…....10 The Importance of Hmong Skirt……………………………………………………..….…....12 Paj Ntaub………………………………………………………………..…………………….12 Hmong Skirt Characteristics………………..…………………………..…………………….13 Hmong Skirt Materials…………………………………………………..……………………13 Indigo Dye……………………………………………..………………………………….13 Hemp Fibers……………………………………………..………………………………...14 Batiking……………………………………………..……………………………………..14 Hmong Green Skirt Construction………..…………………………..……………………….16 v Hmong Green Skirt Characteristics……………..…………………………..………….…….19 Hmong Symbols……………..…………………………..………….………………………..19 Snail Symbol………………………..……………………………………………………..20 Elephant’s Foot Symbol………………………..……………………………………….....20 House Symbol……………………..………………………………………………..……..21 Heart Symbol……………………...………………………………………………..……..22 Mountains Symbol……………………..……………...…………………………………..22 Ram’s Horn Symbol………………...…………….………………………………..……...23 Tiger Eye Symbol………………...………………………………………………..……...24 Seeds Symbol……...……………...………………………………………………..……...25 Crossing Symbol……………...………………………………………………..……….....26 Hook Symbol…………...……………………………………….……………..……….....26 Diamond Symbol…………...………………………………………………..………........27 Pinwheel Symbol…………...………………………………………………..………........28 Types of Hmong Green Skirts…………...………………………………………………........29 Hmong Moos Pheng Style……...……………………………..……………..………........29 Hmong Mood Pheng Diamond Style.………………..………..……………..………........30 Tswv Nkhaus - Zig Zag.……………………………..………………………….……........31 12 Tab Nplais - Triangle……………………………..………………………….…….......32 14 Tab Nplais - Triangle……………………………..………………………….…….......33 Single Cross (“X”) ……………………………..………………………….……...............34 Double Cross (“X”) - Tswv Tsav……………..………………………….……..................35 vi Triple Cross (“X”)……………………………..……………………..…….……...............36 Tswv Khauj Tsav/Heart mixed with Zig-Zag..……………………..…….…….................37 Tswv Nqai Laug…………………………..……………………..…….……......................39 Tswv Sib Twb……………………………..…………………..…….……..........................40 Tswv Txaum……………………………..…………………..…….……............................41 Chapter 3: Methods………………………………………………….…………………………...42 Research Objective…………………………………………………………………………...42 Skirt Sample……………………………………………………….…………………….……42 Recruitment……………………………………………………….……………………..……43 Participants……………………………………………………….…………………….……..43 What is Material Culture?……………………………………….……….…………….……..43 Why the Fleming Model Approach?…………………………….……….…………….……..44 Hmong Skirt Analysis………………………………………………………………………...49 Hmong Skirt #1……………………………………………………………………………49 Hmong Skirt #2……………………………………………………………………………54 Hmong Skirt #3……………………………………………………………………………59 Hmong Skirt #4……………………………………………………………………………64 Hmong Skirt #5……………………………………………………………………………69 Hmong Skirt #6……………………………………………………………………………74 Hmong Skirt #7……………………………………………………………………………79 Hmong Skirt #8……………………………………………………………………………83 Chapter 4: Results………………………………………………………………………...……...88 vii Properties……………………………….……………………………………….…………...89 Operations: Identification, Evaluation & Cultural Analysis…………………….…………...97 Chapter 5: Conclusion………………………………………………………………,…...……..103 Further Research………………………………………………………...………,………….105 References………………………………………………………...…………………,…………107 Appendix A - Hmong Skirt Pictures…………………………………………………...…,……111 Appendix B - Interview Questions…………………………………………………….…...…..120 List of Tables Table 1 - History Chart…………………………………………………………………………..89 Table 2 - Materials Chart………………………………………………………………………...90 Table 3 - Design Chart……………………………………………………………………….…..92 Table 4 - Construction Chart………………………………………………………………….….94 Table 5 - Function Chart…………………………………………………………………………96 Table 6 - Operations Chart……………………………………………………………………….98 List of Figures Figure 1 - Full traditional Hmong Green Printed Skirt Outfit…………………………………….9 Figure 2 - Traditional Hmong White outfit ………………………………………………………9 Figure 3 - Batik Tools……………………………………………………………………………15 Figure 4 - Caterpillar and Centipede Stitch ……………………………………………………..16 Figure 5 - Sewing on Polyester Trims…………………………………………………………...17 viii Figure 6 - 1-2-1-2 Pleating Method……………………………………………………………...18 Figure 7 - 2-1-1-2 Pleating Method……………………………………………………………...19 Figure 8 - Snail Motif 1 & Snail Motif ………………………………………………………….20 Figure 9 - Elephant’s Foot Motif………………………………………………………………...20 Figure 10 - House Motif…………………………………………………………………………21 Figure 11 - Paj Ntaub artwork……………………………………………………………………21 Figure 12 - Heart Motif…………………………………………………………………………..22 Figure 13 - Elephant’s Foot Heart Motif…………………………………………………………22 Figure 14 - Mountain Motif……………………………………………………………………...22 Figure 15 - Ram’s Horn Motif…………………………………………………………………...23 Figure 16 - Tiger’s Eye Motif……………………………………………………………………24 Figure 17 - Tiger Eye Paj Ntaub…………………………………………………………………24 Figure 18 - Triangle Seeds Motif………………………………………………………………...25 Figure 19 - Circular Seeds Motif………………………………………………………………...25 Figure 20 - Oval Seeds Motif…………………………………………………………………….25 Figure 21 - Cross Motif…………………………………………………………………………..26 Figure 22 - Hook Motif…………………………………………………………………………..26 Figure 23 - Diamond Motif………………………………………………………………………27 Figure 24 - Landscape Motif………………………………………………………………….….28 Figure 35 - Pinwheel Motif………………………………………………………………………28 Figure 26 - Hmong Moos Pheng Skirt…………………………………………………………...29 Figure 27 - Hmong Moos Pheng Diamond Style Skirt…………………………………………..30 ix Figure 28 - Tswv Nkhaus Style Skirt…………………………………………………………….31 Figure 29 - 12 Tab Nplais Skirt ………………………………………………………………….32 Figure 30 - 14 Tab Nplais Skirt ………………………………………………………………….33 Figure 31 - Single Cross Skirt……………………………………………………………………34 Figure 32 - Tswv Tsav (Double Cross) Skirt…………………………………………………….35 Figure 33 - Triple Cross Skirt……………………………………………………………………36 Figure 34 - Close-up of the Heart Shape Pattern………………………………………………...37 Figure 35 - Heart with Zig Zag Skirt………………………………………………………………38 Figure 36 - Tswv Nqai Laug Skirt……………………………………………………………….39 Figure 37 - Tswv Sib Twb Skirt …………………………………………………………………40 Figure 38 - Tswv Txuam Skirt…………………………………………………………………….41 Figure 39 - Fleming Model………………………………………………………………………47 Figure 40 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #1……………………………………………………49 Figure 41 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #1 ……………………………………………………49 Figure 42 - Close up view of triangle trims of Hmong skirt #1…………………………………53 Figure 43 - Close up view of straight trims on Hmong skirt #1…………………………………53 Figure 44 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #2……………………………………………………54 Figure 45 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #2…………………………………………………….55 Figure 46 - Close up view of zig-zag trims on Hmong skirt #2…………...…………………….58 Figure 47 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #3……………………………………………………59 Figure 48 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #3…………………………………………………….60 Figure 49 - Close up view of cross trims on Hmong skirt #3……………………………………63 x Figure 50 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #4…………………………………………………..64 Figure 51- Interior view of Hmong skirt #4……………………………………………………65 Figure 52 - Close up view of straight trims on Hmong skirt #4…………..……………………68 Figure 53 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #5…………………………………………………..69 Figure 54 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #5 waistband………………………………………..70 Figure 55 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #6…………………………………………………..74 Figure 56 - Full Exterior view of Hmong skirt #6……………………………………………..75 Figure 57 - Close up view of Hmong skirt #6………………………………………………….78 Figure 58 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #7…………………………………………………..79 Figure 59 - Close up view of Hmong skirt #7………………………………………………….82 Figure 60 - Exterior front view of Hmong skirt #8……………………………………………..83 Figure 61- Exterior back view of Hmong skirt #8……………………………………….……..84 Figure 62- Close up view of hem of Hmong skirt #8…………………………………….……..87 xi Chapter 1 Introduction The Hmong skirt or “daim tiab'' is an object that is a part of the Hmong traditional attire. Although the Hmong skirt was traditionally worn for everyday wear, in today’s global society traditional Hmong clothing is now worn for events such as weddings and the annual Hmong New Year. Western clothing became highly practiced because of the convenience over traditional Hmong clothing. The significance of Hmong cultural dress is determined by the different groups in the Hmong community and each group has cultural dress that identifies them. The skirt is most noticeable from a distant view and it is the easiest to spot thus, the Hmong skirt plays an important role in identifying which dialect the wearer speaks. Hmong history and cultural information is passed down by oral traditions. There is little published material or academic research on Hmong traditional textiles and cultural wear, which is why this research is so important. Dialect in the Hmong community is quite complex because there are a number of different regions or locations for the Hmong throughout all the different regions they migrated to. The Hmong diaspora represent many dialects of the Hmong from Thailand, Laos and China, and local regional dialects have not been early researched. The two most common dialects are Hmong Green (Hmong Leng or published in early articles about Hmong as Hmong Blue) and Hmong White in the United States. The complexity of categorizing and naming Hmong groups, not only are given names after the clothing they wear but also given names based on their dialect of speech. Some of these names or titles are as follows: Hmong Chinese, Hmong Stripe, Hmong Black, Hmong Flowery, and more. While some of these names are not necessarily due to dialect, but due to the region they live in or clothing they wear. 1 For example, Hmong stripe is the name of white dialect speaking Hmong with stripe textiles on their sleeves living in a vast number of regions in China and Southeast Asia, including other countries they may have migrated to. Among these groups, there are different types of Hmong attire, accessories, and designs. Focusing on skirts, each dialect group may have one or more types of skirts that represent the dialect. Today, a Hmong skirt plays a different role. It is worn for its beauty and design quality, collection, fashion or academic purposes. Some women may wear it to identify themselves as “Hmong”, but it does not necessarily mean they are identifying themselves as a specific Hmong dialect group. Hmong skirts are still the most popular item to purchase or receive as a gift. To understand the significance of the Hmong skirt, an analysis of skirts from the Hmong Green dialect from participants who live in the Twin Cities area in Minnesota is presented. The reason white dialect skirts are not utilized in this research is because white dialect skirts are made of hemp with no specific cultural design or no motif. Research Interest As part of the first-generation of Hmong-Americans born in the United States, we adapted to American culture. However, through the adaptation to American culture, young Hmong generations by default have lost most of their Hmong traditions. Growing up Hmong in America, there were some limitations on gathering information and having to adapt to westernized views. I still attended our Hmong New Years celebrations and wore traditional attire and even attended Hmong dance classes. Being a part of a dance group allowed me to recognize Hmong dress, but it was not until high school that I recognized my fascination for designing 2 Hmong modern apparel because of the Hmong textiles and clothing that I wore. I began my research on Hmong dress and traditional cultural attire as an undergraduate. I researched different Hmong dresses worn by different Hmong dialect-subgroups. Each subgroup had unique dress and semiotics behind the choice of color and style. There are many messages in the Hmong dress, from the motifs stitched on a Hmong outfit to the different meanings of color. In my research I realized that there is not a strong written record of Hmong dress. Unfortunately, most of the information that I have found on Hmong cultural dress and textiles is not in published books or articles that are accessible to Hmong american researchers like myself. There are other published texts in foreign languages that were not conducive to my research, therefore they were not included. The majority of information is found in blogs, stories, and word of mouth. Currently, the Hmong are reinterpreting some traditional symbols, though there is some concern that the symbols with different meanings may have been pulled from biased and/or shifting cultural views. This sparked my interest in attending graduate school to dive deeper into researching the history of Hmong dress and textiles. Purpose and Research Question The purpose of this study is to analyze and examine Hmong Green skirts made in Laos, Thailand, and the United States using Fleming’s model for artifact study. The objective is to examine the different methods of construction and design of the Hmong skirts across time and location to track continuity or change in symbolic meaning. It is important to understand the significance because prior research has focused on the basics of Hmong clothing, but there is a 3 gap in documented knowledge about the physical, cultural, and symbolic details of traditional garments. There is also little written knowledge about Hmong clothing made in the past 10 to 15 years or the meaning behind each garment. Hmong clothing has also been modernized with newer equipment and techniques. The primary question guiding this research is: How can artifact analysis be used to determine the significance of Hmong Green skirts? Definitions of Hmong Terminology ● Paj Ntaub: ○ Translation: flower cloth. ○ Definition: A traditional form of Hmong embroidery. ● Daim Tiab: ○ Translation: Skirt or dress ● Ntaub Maaj ○ Translation: Hemp Fabric ● Taw Tiab: ○ Translation: foot of the skirt or bottom trim of the skirt ● Qab Qwj ○ Translation: Snail ● Ko Taw Ntxhw ○ Translation: Elephant’s Foot ● Tus Ntaiv ○ Translation: Stairs or steps ● Lub Tsev 4 ○ Translation: House ● Lub Plawv ○ Translation: Heart ● Roob ○ Translation: Mountain ● Kub Yaj ○ Translation: Ram’s Horn ● Qhov Muag Tsov ○ Translation: Tiger’s Eye ● Noob ○ Translation: Seed ● Tus cim caiv ○ Translation: Cross ● Tus khawb ○ Translation: Hook ● Liaj av teb ○ Translation: Landscape 5 Chapter 2 Review of literature In this chapter, I summarize the history of Hmong cultural dress and how it is relevant to the study and research question. I begin with a brief history of Hmong and how they come to the United States. Then I discuss the Hmong cultural dress and focus on Hmong Green skirts. I am analyzing Hmong Green skirts for my research because of the many colorful panels, symbols, stitching, and embroidery details. I am not Hmong Green, but I am interested in Hmong Green clothing. History of Hmong Many different stories exist about the Hmong. The Hmong, also known as “Miao'', is an ethnic minority who lived in Southwestern China in the provinces of Huhan, Szechuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Yunnan with their population totaling 8.9 million (Corrigan, 2010, 187). It is believed that three to four thousand years ago, the Miao lived in the Yellow River Basin (McDaniel, 2010). The name “Miao” was given to the Hmong by the Chinese government as a derogatory term for “barbarian” or “savage” (Lynch, 1999). Historically, the term “Miao” was given to 70 to 80 sub-ethnic groups that were not part of the Chinese (Lynch, 1999). It is a 6 misconception that Miao and Hmong are different names for identical ethnic groups (Craig, 2010). The Hmong group under the Miao consisted of different dialects and languages. Under the control of the Chinese government, speaking and writing in Hmong were illegal and they were forced to abandon their culture (Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). Eventually, the Hmong people fled China to Vietnam, and they called themselves “Hmong”. The name “Hmong” and its meaning is still highly debatable. Metaphorically, it may translate to “Free” or “Free Man” as the Hmong are still searching for freedom (Cha, 2010). Some Hmong people continue to live in China. The rise of Communism in Vietnam following World War II pushed the Hmong into Laos in the 1960s (Lynch, 1999). The Hmong helped French soldiers in 1945, thus, the Vietnamese wanted to eliminate the Hmong (Lynch, 1999). The Hmong, who sided with the French, were drawn into war. In 1954 after French withdrawal, the Hmong continued to fight for their freedom in a 20 year secret war (Lynch, 1999). In 1975, Laos was overthrown by Communist forces after the collapse of the Royal Laotian Government (Lynch, 1999). Pathet Lao gained control over two-thirds of Laos, forcing noncommunist Laos and Hmong to flee the country (Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). About one-third of the Hmong were killed, another third stayed in Laos, and the last third fled to Thailand to escape persecution under the hands of the Laotian Communists (Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). In Thailand, the Hmong were assigned to refugee camps while awaiting admittance to the United States (Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). There were six refugee camps: Chang Khong, 7 Chang Kham, Sob Tuang, Ban Nam Yao, and Ban Vanaim which had the largest number of Hmong refugees (Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). Before refugees could immigrate to the United States, they had to exhibit proof, such as military assignments, stating that they served on the United States side of the “secret war”(Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). The Hmong who fought on the communist side were not allowed to settle in the United States. (Hafner-Hoppenworth, 1989). The Hmong immigrated to the United States with the largest Hmong populations residing in Minnesota, California, and Wisconsin. (Chaney, 2010). My mother’s family immigrated to the United States in 1978 and my father’s family immigrated to the United States in 1979, making them part of the first waves of Hmong immigration. Families who had a relative who served on the United States side during the war were allowed to immigrate to the United States sooner than other Hmong. Today, the Hmong are spread throughout the United States including North Carolina, Oklahoma, and more. Some Hmong decided to live in Australia and France after escaping the communist regime (Lynch, 1999). Hmong Cultural Dress Hmong dress has a special significance to the Hmong living in the United States because it symbolizes their ethnic identity (Lynch, 1999). Each garment piece in the Hmong cultural dress attire has a meaning that explains why the Hmong wear the item of dress. Traditionally, cultural dress was worn to represent which sub-dialect groups one came from and indicated who was a relative and how closely they were related (Lynch, 1999). There are many subgroups in the Hmong community, but the three largest subgroups are the White, Green (historically known as Hmong Blue), and Striped. These names were derived from the colors and patterns used in 8 their special-occasion dress (Chaney, 2010). The Hmong people used to wear a full traditional garment as their daily dress, but as time moved into the 1900s, they started to wear a full traditional garment only for special occasions (Chaney, 2010). These special occasions included parties, dances, weddings, and for family pictures . Currently, Hmong can wear any sub-dialect groups’ clothing by mixing the sub-styles together, even if it represents groups other than one’s own (Lynch, 1999). Figure 1 - Full traditional Hmong Green Printed Skirt Outfit (Photo by Xai S. Lor, n.d.) 9 Figure 2 Traditional Hmong White outfit (Photo by Xai S. Lor, n.d.) A wide variety of styles of Hmong dress are worn to New Year celebrations, but all traditional dress has the same basic style (Chaney, 2010). This basic style of women’s dress is composed of many clothing pieces in the ensemble (Chaney, 2010) which includes a white collared shirt that is worn underneath a dark-colored jacket with wide sleeves, a pleated skirt or trousers, a long apron, and a sash belt worn over the skirt (Voreitter, 2016). Other accessories include a head covering, silver necklaces, leg warmers, and shoes (Chaney, 2010). Pieces that may be worn depending on Hmong subgroup or fashion choices are extra sashes or belts to pad the waist, and money shoulder bags (Dhamija, 2010). The Social Significance in Hmong Dress 10 The Hmong wear special occasion dress to New Year celebrations, weddings, and sometimes photography events. Traditionally, the Lao Hmong New Year is celebrated on the 30th day of the 12th lunar month (Hmong, 2017). It was celebrated for three to five days at the close of the busy agricultural season. It was an opportunity for family members and friends to gather together and form new bonds. “Clan leaders and shamans performed rituals of renewal ushering the new year by banishing the cares of the old year, and making peace with the spirit world in order to safeguard the community for the upcoming year” (Lynch, 1999, p. 22). This holiday was called “courtship and marriage” by elders. During the busiest agriculture day, this allowed the opportunity for parents and potential lovers to meet and arrange marriages (Lynch, 1999). Each family member received a new set of clothing to wear for the celebration (Chaney, 2010). This was meant to help people start the new year fresh. It was thought that wearing old clothing brought bad luck to the family for the upcoming year (Chaney, 2010). If every family member had new clothing, the family’s success was displayed to the whole community during the festivities (Chaney, 2010). If a family was not successful in getting new clothes, it was very noticeable and the community would know who had and had not done well during the past year. This had an important effect on the family’s reputation (Chaney, 2010). Hmong women were the creators of the garments in a Hmong family. They would spend most of their days stitching each garment piece by hand for themselves and for their family. It was always a tradition that a Hmong girl would learn the necessary skills to make and decorate Hmong dress (Chaney, 2010). These lessons started as young as five years old (Craig, 2010). When examining the garments, it was obvious to see which class a person came from. The more 11 intricate the designs were, the wealthier that person or family. It was also said that the more beads and silver coins there were on a garment, the wealthier they were too. Each female was judged by their clothing (Chaney, 2010). A young woman was considered marriageable if she could execute the most difficult needlework (Chaney, 2010). The quality of her garment was examined to see if she was going to be a good mother and wife. It was also reported that a woman’s inventiveness in textile work could be an indicator of her future fertility in childbirth (Craig, 2010). Not only was needlework considered an indicator of a good wife and mother of their future children, but in the future, she would have to create her mother-in-law’s funeral clothing (Craig, 2010). Men looked for women who possessed these high-level skills. A woman’s skills in needlework were not only meant to impress a potential husband and family but also reflected on her family and her upbringing (Chaney, 2010). The Importance of Hmong Skirt Hmong garments and accessories are unique with different patterns, colors, and sewing techniques to represent identity. Hmong skirts “have become an international hallmark for the Hmong and form an integral part of Hmong identity worldwide” (Clarke, 2005, p. 75). A Hmong skirt is easy to see from a distance, which helps determine the dialect group of the wearer. For example, Hmong White skirts do not have any embroidery or batiking techniques whereas Hmong Green skirts do. 12 Now that Hmong skirts are worn for their beauty rather than for identification, the importance of identity has shifted. Hmong women used to wear traditional dress for identifying themselves from a dialect group, but now Hmong women are wearing skirts to identify themselves as “Hmong”. Hmong women still wear the skirts for traditional events but they are also wearing them by mixing and matching with other garments. One article of Hmong clothing can identify the wearer as Hmong, and a Hmong skirt is often used as that article of clothing. For example, a Hmong skirt could be paired with a plain T-shirt and the observer would know that the wearer has connections to the Hmong culture. Paj Ntaub Our legends say that the Hmong had a written language, but when the Chinese made writing and speaking in Hmong illegal, Hmong women hid the Hmong alphabet in the folds of a women’s skirt with decorative motifs (Craig, 2010). This is called “Paj Ntaub” meaning “flower cloth”. The practice of paj ntaub is a form of stitchery and traditional art of the Hmong people (McCall, 1999). It is customarily used to create designs on both story cloths and articles of clothing (McCall, 1999). As a result, Hmong clothes and textiles have a visual language and story in their symbols and embroidery. In a garment or story cloth, almost every stitch represents a symbol and the meaning behind the symbol. Hmong Skirt Characteristic A Hmong woman's pleated skirt is characteristically seven to seven and a half yards of woven hemp or cotton fabric (Wronska-Friend, 2010). The skirts use approximately quarter-inch pleats sewn in place that are released before wearing to ensure a sharp, clean appearance (Lynch, 13 1999). The skirts usually fall right below the knee (Chaney, 2010). “When tied around the waist, the skirt swings and twists seductively” (Wronska-Friend, 2010, p. 460). A traditional Hmong skirt has no seam and the edges of the skirt are not finished (Wronska-Friend, 2010). When putting on the skirt, the edges are overlapped in the front midsection of a woman’s body because it is covered with the apron (Wronska-Friend, 2010). Hmong skirt materials Indigo Dye Traditionally, the first stage of making a Hmong skirt is to prepare the indigo dye. The process of making indigo dye uses indigo leaves that are soaked and fermented in hot water (Voreitter, 2016). Occasionally, the leaves are lifted into the air and stirred for oxygenation until the liquid turns into the desired, dark blue color (Voreitter, 2016). Once the leaves are discarded, the solution is mixed with limestone sediment, a chalky stone that has been heated and doused in cold water until it is a fine powder (Voreitter, 2016). Hemp Fibers Traditionally, the skirt fabric was woven on a handloom using hemp yarns. Hemp plants grew very rapidly throughout China. and could reach up to 3-4 yards high during the growing season (Clarke, 2005). Hemp was the main source of fiber for the Hmong because it was found in every rural area of the Hmong community (Clarke, 2005). As hemp grew rapidly it was an easy resource (Mallison, Donnelly, & Hang, 1988). The stems of the hemp plants were stripped, soaked, and pounded to release the fiber. The fibers were then gathered into bundles to twist the 14 ends together, joining the separated fibers into one continuous yarn (Mallison, Donnelly, & Hang, 1988). Once the yarns of hemp were prepared, the loom was threaded (Voreitter, 2016). The weaver controlled the tension of the weft with a back strap and shifted the warps with a foot treadle (Voreitter, 2016). The weaver periodically brushed the threads to remove loose fibers and dust, using a wooden tool called the “raj nqaw”. This tool acted as both a shuttle and a beater to weave a narrow hemp panel (Voreitter, 2016). Once the fibers were woven together to make the fabric, they were softened by a process called calendering. To do this, they rolled a big rock with a cylinder boulder over the fabric. After the calendering process, they bleached the fabric white by boiling it in water with wood ash (Mallison, Donnelly, & Hang, 1988). After boiling, the fabric was lifted out of the pot, wrapped in large leaves, and taken to the river to be washed and dried in the sun (Mallison, Donnelly, & Hang, 1988). This process was repeated until the fabric is white. Batiking Batik is a process of adding designs to the fabric. Once the fabric of the hemp skirt is finished, it is laid out in small sections, creating a blueprint of abstract and geometric motifs with an indigo marking tool (Voreitter, 2016). Batik fabric is made by using a wax-resist dyeing process (Chaney, 2010). The designs are traced by dipping hot liquid wax with fine copper tools to create intricate patterns (Chaney, 2010). The skirt is then soaked repeatedly in a cool, indigo solution until the cloth is the desired tone (Voreitter, 2016 ). This process is repeated, each time adding new motifs. When the skirt is finished, it is hung up to dry and then the wax is peeled off (Voreitter, 2016). 15 Figure 3 -Batik Tools (Photo by Kachia Lee 10.25.23) Hmong Green Skirt Construction A Hmong Green skirt is made up of three horizontal panels. The top panel is the waistband. The middle panel is the batik panel and the bottom panel is the cross-stitch panel. A hemp panel is used for the waistband, and is sewn to the skirt top (Voreitter, 2016). This panel is 16 called “Dhua”, and uses “Ntaub Maas” which translates to “plain fabric” (Saetho, 2024). This is usually the last part to be attached. The waistband is bleached to a solid white color. This is because the waistband will eventually get covered up by a belt or sash, so it does not matter if there is no design or pattern. The waistband can be constructed with two different types of stitches: a caterpillar stitch or a centipede stitch (Saetho, 2024). A long strip of fabric is sewn on each side of the skirt at the waistband so that the wearer can wrap and tie the skirt. Today, this panel is made from any white woven, cotton fabric available in stores. Figure 4 - Caterpillar & Centipede Stitch (photo by Ka Youa Vue, 3.28.24) The middle panel is the batik fabric. Once the base of the skirt is complete, the women add embroidery, appliques, and design details to the skirt. These designs vary around the skirt. It can be decorated for just a few inches at the hem or enough to cover the entire skirt (Chaney, 17 2010). It is decorated with polyester strips of fabric to create the zig-zag, cross, straight line, or triangle designs. These strips are usually alternating colors of green, pink, and yellow. The bottom panel is the cross-stitch panel. This panel consists of cross stitch patterns that may be the same as the batik fabric pattern or it may use elephant symbols across the piece. Traditionally, the maker takes out the strands of the polyester fabric to use as threads to cross stitch. This makes use of the materials that are already owned without having to buy others. It is also decorated with the same polyester strips of fabric to create the same zig-zag, cross, line, or triangle patterns to match the batik panel above. The alternating color combinations are the same. The hem of the skirt is finished with another polyester trim that is used as binding. This is called “taw thiab'' which translates to the foot of the skirt. Figure 5 -Sewing on Polyester Trims (photo by Kachia Lee, 2.7.24) Once the skirt is complete, it is folded by hand in ¼” - ½ inch pleats and sewn shut with cotton or hemp thread (Voreitter, 2016). There are two methods for sewing the pleats. The 18 2-1-1-2 method is a traditional method, and is less full (Saetho, 2024). The 1-2-1-2 method is the more modern method to make the skirt fuller (Saetho, 2024). Once pleated, the threads keep the pleats crisp and are removed right before a skirt is worn. They are replaced after wearing to prepare the skirt for storage. This keeps the pleats intact as cotton fiber cannot permanently retain the pleats. The length of the skirt is dependent on the wearer’s height. Traditionally the skirt falls right along the knee. Today, most women like it shorter, above the knee. Figure 6: 1-2-1-2 pleating method (photo by Ka Youa Vue, 3.28.24) 19 Figure 7: 2-1-1-2 pleating method. (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 3.28.24) Hmong Green Skirt Characteristics Hmong Green skirts stand out due to the many bold colors and patterns. Hmong Green skirts can be identified from the use of blue batik to produce the pattern (Lynch, 1995). “Hmong Green women customarily wear a pleated skirt dominated visually by a wide central panel of blue batik work and decorated with applique and embroidery.” (Lynch, 1995, p. 256) Hmong Green skirts are made in many different designs and styles. Each style has many symbols and motifs. Hmong Symbols This section categorizes the different symbols and motifs found in Hmong textiles. These are the most common motifs. 20 Snail Symbol Snail motif 1 Snail Motif 2 Figure 8 ( Photo by Hmongembroidery.org) The snail motif is one of the most common motifs seen in a Hmong textile. In Hmong, it is called the “Qab qwj”. It is a swirl design shown in “snail motif 1” Figure 8 above. There is another snail motif that consists of two swirl designs connected to each other, shown in Figure 8 above “snail motif 2”.This is called a “double snail” motif. Snails are resilient creatures and possibly the reason why it is called a “snail”. This motif represents youthfulness and health. Elephant's Foot Symbol Figure 9 “Elephant’s foot” Motif - (Photo by Hmongembroidery.org) The motif “Elephant’s foot”is “Ko taw ntxhw” in Hmong. This motif is popular and is the most used in Hmong textiles. This motif consists of four double snail motifs put together, 21 creating a flower design. This motif represents wealth and happiness. The Elephant’s Foot motif has become a universal symbol to identify the Hmong people. House Symbol Figure 10 - “House” Motif (Photo by Hmongembroidery.org) The house motif consists of four steps or rick rack designs put together. A rick rack or steps are called “Tus ntaiv” in Hmong. The house motif is called ``Lub tsev” in Hmong. A house represents the home for Hmong people or someone’s home. It can represent the home of the person who stitched it. Another interpretation of this motif represents “unity”. The house motif is often seen placed inside of the elephant’s foot motif as shown in the “Paj Ntaub Artwork” Figure 11below. When the elephant’s foot and house motif are presented together, it represents a person’s home with the wish that the family will receive wealth and positive aspirations. 22 Figure 11 - Paj Ntaub artwork By Mai Cha, 1985, 21x19 cm Photo by Noah Vang, item at the Hmong Archives Heart Symbol Figure 12 Heart motif (Photo by Hmongembroidery.org) The heart motif is called “lub plawv”. This is a very straightforward motif that represents a heart. It is very common in Hmong textiles mainly for it being a beautiful design. Another interpretation of the heart motif is to represent a bull (Magliveras, 2020). It can often be seen designed together to make another variation of the elephant’s foot design using four heart motifs, shown in Figure 13. 23 Figure 13 Elephant’s Foot Heart Motif (Photo Drawn by Kachia Lee) Mountains Symbol Figure 14 Mountain Motif (Photo by Hmongembroidery.org) The mountain motif consists of many triangles lined up next to each other. It is known as “rooj” in Hmong. Mountains represent space and place. This particular motif is commonly seen as the border design in textiles and garments. It is often seen in Hmong Green skirts. Borders of mountains symbols represent home and belonging. The mountain motif can also be called ``scales” when the mountains are stitched smaller. Another representation of the triangle motifs is defined as “dragon’s teeths” (Magliveras, 2020). Ram’s Horn Symbol 24 Figure 15 Ram’s Horn Motif (Photo by Hmongembroidery.org) Ram’s horn is called “Kub Yaj'' in Hmong. There are many interpretations of this motif. One interpretation taken from ethosspirit.com is that it represents wisdom. According to Hmongembroidery.org, the ram’s horn motif has no specific meaning and serves as a decorative detail. In other cultures, such as the Turkish, it is a symbol of fertility, heroism, power and masculinity. The ram can be interpreted as a symbol of a God or a leader. Tiger Eye Symbol Figure 16 Tiger Eye Motif (Photo drawn by Kachia Lee) The tiger eye consists of the double snail design and a diamond. This motif is similar to the ram’s horn motif. The tiger eye motif is known as “qhov muag tsov” in Hmong. A tiger 25 represents strength, so it symbolizes a space of strength and power. Figure 17 shows an embroidery design using tiger eye motifs. Figure 17 Tiger Eye Paj Ntaub (By Ka Her, 1980s, 19x20cm Photo by Noah Vang, item at Hmong Archives) Seeds Symbols Figure 18 Triangle seeds (Photo from Hmongembroidery.org) 26 Figure 19 Circular Seeds Motif - (Drawn by Kachia Lee) Figure 20 Oval Seed Motif- (Drawn by Kachia Lee) The seed motif is known as “noob” in Hmong. This motif is stitched and designed in many different designs or styles of motifs. There are triangle shaped seeds, circular shaped seeds and oval shaped seeds. Seeds symbolize growth because the Hmong were farmers. All seeds and plants stitched in a textile symbolize growth There are cucumber seeds. rice seeds, pepper seeds, pumpkin seeds, and more. The oval shaped seed is often designed into the shape of a flower because it looks like a petal. 27 Crossings Symbol Figure 21 - Cross Motif (Photo from Hmongembroidery.org) The cross or “X” motif is called “Tus cim caiv” in Hmong. Crossing motifs represent pathways. The single cross is just one example of cross symbols. There are many variations including double cross, triple cross and hook symbols. Hook Symbol Figure 22 - Hook Motif (Photo from Hmongembroidery.org) The hook motif is called “Tus khawb” in Hmong. The hook motif is designed with multiple cross motifs together. On different types of accessories or textiles it is presented differently. This hook motif is often seen on baby carriers and funeral textiles. On a funeral textile, it represents a pathway for the deceased to find their way home to their ancestors. On a baby carrier it represents a pathway for the baby to connect to their heritage. It is often seen on 28 garments or textiles for the fragile moments of a person’s life, such as when people have passed or for the youngest/babies. Diamond Symbol Figure 23 Diamond Motif (Photo from Hmongembroidery.org) The diamond motif does not have a Hmong word. This motif symbolizes groups of people or men. Another interpretation of this motif is that it symbolizes money. This motif is often shown on baby carriers to represent wealth or wishing good wealth for the baby. When the diamonds are placed and designed together, it is called a “Liaj av teb”, which means “landscape”, shown below. Figure 24 shows the landscape motif which is called a “noob ncoos” textile. The diamonds are often designed together with the hook motifs to create a map which are the pathways for the deceased or the baby. 29 Figure 24 Landscape motif (Artwork by Neng Vang Yang, 1998, 22x32 cm Photo by Noah Vang, item at the Hmong Archives) Pinwheel Symbol Figure 25 Pinwheel motif (Artwork by OTOP, 2005, 42x43 cm Photo by Xai S. Lor, item at the Hmong Archives) The pinwheel symbol has triangle shapes that are touching at the tip to create a wheel-shape design. Another interpretation of the pinwheel symbol can be designed with triangle seeds like above and it creates a flower shape. 30 Types of Hmong Green Skirts This section categorizes the different types of Hmong Green Skirts. These are the most common and popular styles today. Hmong Moos Pheng Style This style of skirt is the most popular to make and the most common. Hmong Moos Pheng skirts have the elephant symbol on the bottom panel. Any skirt that has the elephant symbol or snail symbol is considered Hmong Moos Pheng style. This bottom panel is also constructed with the pinwheel symbols. 31 Figure 26 - Hmong Moos Pheng Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) Hmong Moos Pheng Diamond style This style is the same as the Hmong Moos Pheng in figure 26, except that there is a diamond sewn in the middle of the elephant’s foot symbol. 32 Figure 27 - Hmong Moos Pheng Diamond Style Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) Tswv Nkhaus - Zig zag This pattern is made up of a single row of zig-zag ribbons across the skirt. 33 Figure 28 - Tswv Nkhaus Style Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 5.29.24.) 12 Tab Nplais - Triangle 34 This skirt consists of 12 groupings of triangle rows or mountain motifs along the whole skirt. Figure 29 - 12 Tab Nplais Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) 35 14 Tab Nplais - Triangle This skirt consists of 14 groupings of triangle rows or mountain motifs along the whole skirt. Figure 30 - 14 Tab Nplais Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) 36 Single Cross (“X”) This skirt consists of a single cross pattern across the skirt. The design is diagonal lines that create an “X” cross symbol. 37 Figure 31 - Single Cross Skirt (Photo by Cha Saetho, 6.1.24.) Double cross (“X”) - Tswv Tsav 38 The double cross pattern is the most commonly used cross pattern. The design is diagonal lines that create a cross or “x” shape. Figure 32 -Tswv Tsav (double cross) Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) 39 Triple Cross (“X”) The triple cross pattern is designed in diagonal lines that create a cross or “x” shape, but is crossed over three times. . Figure 33 - Triple Cross Skirt (Photo by Kachia Lee, 10.25.23.) 40 Tswv Khauj Tsav/Heart mixed with Zig-Zag This skirt is a very intricate pattern but is called a “heart” because the crossings of the patterns can make a heart shape. It is also a hand knuckle-like shape that bends at the tips of each line. Figure 34 Close-up of the Heart Shape Pattern (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) 41 Figure 35 - Heart with Zig Zag Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 2.22.24.) 42 Tswv Nqai Laug This skirt has two rows of overlapping “v” shape patterns. This is commonly designed with another zig-zag pattern between the two rows. 43 Figure 36 Tswv Nqai Laug Skirt (Photo by Kavliam Tao, 3.25.24) Tswv Sib Twb This skirt design has two separate rows of zig-zags, but they do not cross over each other. The corners touch at the pointed tips. 44 Figure 37 Tswv Sib Twb Skirt (Photo by Cha Saetho, 5.29.24) Tswv Txuam This skirt has a fine diamond shape across the skirt made up of two zig-zags crossing over one another. 45 Figure 38 -Tswv Txuam Skirt (Photo by Ka Youa Vue, 5.29.24.) 46 Chapter 3 - Method Research Objective The objective is to examine the different methods of construction and design of the Hmong Green skirts to gain an understanding of the transition of Hmong skirts in Hmong culture across time and location to track continuity or change in symbolic meaning. Two research methods were used to accomplish this: 1) a material cultural analysis using McClung Fleming's model for artifact study and 2) interviews with Hmong skirt owners and makers to learn about their use and knowledge of Hmong Green Skirts. The two methods were used to gain an understanding of the relationship between the skirt and the owner. The interviews were used to help inform the analysis. Hmong Participant Identity Hmong is a diaspora community from all over the world. As part of this research, when the name Hmong is mentioned it refers to those with a southeast Asian Hmong identity and Hmong American identity with the majority originating from Laos. Skirt Sample A total of 20 Hmong Green skirts were collected as possible artifacts for this research, with eight chosen for analysis. Tools used to analyze the skirts were a camera to take photos of the skirt and a measuring tape to get accurate measurements of the skirt. No special lighting or 47 camera was used. Duplicates of pattern, style, or time period were removed from the analysis resulting in eight skirts, even though the skirts may not look the same. The eight skirts chosen were represented from different time periods, origin, and showcased different designs and patterns. They were also selected due to the different values placed on the skirt. Recruitment: An announcement was posted on Facebook to recruit participants. The announcement was posted on the Facebook group called “Hmong Clothes Addict (HCA)” and then shared on the researcher’s personal page. Criteria to participate included anyone 18 years old or older who owned a Hmong Green skirt or was a creator of a Hmong skirt. Participants self-identified in response to social media posts. Initial contact was made on the same social media platform. Other participants connected through snowballing using the researcher’s email to make the initial contact. Participants: A total of three participants were recruited via social media and four participants were recruited through word of mouth or were family members. There was no restriction on the number of Hmong Green skirts the participants shared. All participants were located in the Twin Cities area in Minnesota. The researcher met with the participants at the participant’s house or at a local library. What is Material Culture? 48 Material culture can be traced to a range of literature and research. This can be found in evolutionary anthropology, modern sociology and social theory, marketing and physiological approaches, consumer behaviors, consumption studies within sociology and anthropologies of consumption and economic behavior (Woodward, 2007). Material culture refers to any material object or network of material objects that people touch, use, handle, carry out social activities within or contemplate, thus the study of material culture focuses on the relation between people and objects (Woodward, 2007). The primary concern is what people use the object for and what the objects do for and to people (Woodward, 2007). The field of material culture also aims to analyze how relationships with the object are important to one’s culture (Woodward, 2007). Material culture is a mode of cultural investigation using objects as primary data, but in scholarly research, it can be cultural history and cultural anthropology (Prown, 1982). Material culture is a study through artifacts of the values, ideas, attitudes and assumptions of a community or society (Prown, 1982). Material culture can also be frequently used as a term to refer to the artifact itself and is a study based on the existence of man-made objects as concrete evidence of the presence of human intelligence at the time of invention (Prown, 1982). Why the Fleming Model Approach? The Fleming’s model for artifact study is used to analyze the Hmong skirts. There are two other models that were considered: Prownian analysis (2000) and Zimmerman’s approach (1981). Prownian analysis is divided into five steps: description, deduction, speculation, research and interpretive analysis. This method is valued based on the interpreter’s input and opinion. Zimmerman’s approach is to examine a large number of similar objects to compare them to each 49 other. This may have worked with the Hmong skirts analysis, but would be ideal for examining a broader collection of skirts than just Hmong Green skirts. I chose the Fleming model for artifact study approach because the Fleming model dives deeper into the object’s properties. It utilizes two conceptual tools with five classifications (Fleming, 1974). These classifications are basic properties of an artifact with a set of four operations to be performed (Fleming, 1974). Fleming’s approach examines the artifact with these categories to determine the importance of the artifact to its culture. It analyzes the details of an object that many people do not realize are important to the culture, particularly related to everyday objects and practices. Iit also documents the information about a specific owner or maker and not just the object itself. This is important information as the owner or maker is part of that object’s culture, and the time in which it was made or used. Basic Properties: To understand the basics properties the skirts were analyzed by their history, material, construction, design, and function. History - The history property focuses on “where and when it was made, by whom and for whom and why and successive changes in ownership, condition, and function” (Fleming, 1974, p 156). Material - The material section focuses on what makes up the object. 50 Construction - The construction “has to do with the techniques of manufacture employed, workmanship, and the way parts are organized to bring about the object's function” (Fleming, 1974, p.156). Design - Design focuses on “the structure, form, style, ornament, and iconography of the object” (Fleming, 1974, p.156). Function - The function property analyzes both the use and the role of the object in its culture. This includes utility, communication, and delight aspects. (Fleming, 1974) Operations The skirts were analyzed using identification, evaluation, cultural analysis, and interpretation. Identification - Identification refers to the authentication of whether the object is genuine. It should determine the general class information to which the object belongs (Fleming, 1974). Extended identification includes “biographical details about the maker, the purchaser, or the owner of the artifact; the cultural geography of its place of origin; the sources and characteristics of the material; the origins and antecedents of the techniques if construction or the design motifs employed; the historical function form; or the meaning of the iconography” (Fleming, 1974, p 157). Evaluation - There are two types of evaluation. It can be covered by “judgments of aesthetic quality and workmanship, such as appropriateness of material and texture, skill and taste of craftsmanship, effectiveness of overall design and expressiveness of form, style, and 51 ornament or factual comparisons of one object with others of its kind in quantifiable terms such as relative size, cost, rarity, or temporal primacy as determined through objective research” (Fleming, 1974, p 157). Evaluation might be compared with other objects made by the same craftsman or similar objects made in different regions (Fleming, 1974). Cultural Analysis - This operation deals with the function performed by the object in its culture (Fleming, 1974). Cultural analysis seeks to examine the relationship of the artifact to aspects of its own culture (Fleming, 1974). The object is examined as a “communication conveying status, ideas, values, feelings, and meaning” (Fleming, 1974, p 158). This means that the analysis will indicate the ways the object can be an indicator for major change within its culture (Fleming, 1974). Interpretation - “Interpretation focuses on the relationship between some fact learned about the artifact and some key aspect of our current value system” (Fleming, 1974, p. 161). This section will vary depending on the audience, researcher, and their beliefs. Interpretation of an object may be associated with some “famous person or event in history; the use of some costly, rare, or novel material; some innovative technological principle embodied in construction; the superlative quality of design; the strategic character of symbolic function; the cultural changes affected by use; or the way the artifact expresses the life-style of the age or culture in which it originated” (Fleming, 1974, p. 161). The interpretation of the Hmong skirt analysis will be reviewed in the results section. 52 Figure 39 - Fleming Model Figure 39 is a diagram of the Fleming’s model for artifact study. The diagram shows the 5 classification of the basic properties of an artifact at the bottom, following a set of four operations to be performed on these properties in the Operations (A) section. The Information supplementing the artifact (B) section are ways to approach each operation. 53 Hmong Skirt Analysis Hmong Skirt #1 54 Figure 40 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #1 Figure 41 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #1 Properties 55 History: There was little history on this skirt. The skirt was gifted to the owner by her mother as a wedding gift during the early 2000s. There was no information about the maker. The owner of the skirt wore this skirt only once during her Hmong wedding. She has it pleated and put away in storage. Materials: This skirt is made of polyester and cotton fibers. The base of the skirt is woven cotton whereas the trims like the triangles and lines are woven polyester. The fiber content of thread on the cross stitch is unknown, but could be a mixture of polyester and cotton. Thread to cross stitch could be yarns taken from the polyester fabric used for the trims. The thread to pleat the skirt is a double-strand of unknown fiber content. The cross-stitch embroidery fabric is likely 100% cotton. Construction: This Hmong skirt is constructed with three panels. The top of the skirt is the waistband, the middle panel of the skirt is the batik, and the bottom panel is the cross stitch. The top of the waistband is constructed with a caterpillar stitch. The triangles and double cross polyester trims are hand-sewn onto the skirt. All the straight line trims are sewn with a sewing machine using a straight stitch. Cross-stitch embroidery is done by hand. All the panels are attached by machine sewing. Threading the pleats is also done by hand. They are folded into 3/8 inch pleats. The 56 straps are sewn at the top of the waistband like it is a binding. If a person were to take apart the skirt, there would be four pieces total. (See chart #4) Design: The skirt’s design is a double cross pattern or a Tswv Tsav on the top panel and a triple cross pattern on the bottom panel. Included on the skirt are also mountain symbols. The skirt colors consist of yellow, green, pink, and orange decorative trims. The base of the skirt is white and black with blue indigo dye for the batik design. This skirt is 25 inches long from waist to hem, with the waistband measuring 5 inches in height, the middle panel, and the bottom panel measuring 10 inches in height. This skirt is evenly proportioned with the panels the same height. The width of the skirt, from center front (CF) to center front, measured at the top of the waistband, is 42 inches. Function: The function of this Hmong skirt was a gift to the wearer as part of her wedding attire by her mother. The owner married someone from the Hmong Green dialect, which was why her mother bought her a Hmong Green skirt. Traditionally if you were from a certain dialect and you married someone that speaks a different dialect, the parents would purchase a brand new set of Hmong clothes of the new dialect to wear to their house during the wedding. A Hmong skirt was to be worn with other Hmong apparel and accessories to complete a full traditional Hmong ensemble. While the skirt could be worn for any occasion, the owner only wore it once for her wedding. 57 Operations Identification: Someone wearing the skirt would identify themselves as a Hmong Green woman. The owner is not Hmong Green, but her mother gave her a Hmong Green skirt to appropriately represent that she married someone from the Hmong Green dialect. It is a tradition for mothers to give their daughters the appropriate attire for the dialect they are marrying into. As stated above, there is little knowledge of the maker's identity. Evaluation: The value of this skirt was sentimental, as the owner was gifted this skirt by her mother when she was married. The monetary value of the skirt was unknown. It was very valuable to the owner as she had only worn it once when she was married. She kept it pleated and stored away. The craftsmanship value of this skirt was considered higher end quality due to the hand stitching shown on the triangle and cross trims. The maker took the time to carefully sew the trims by keeping the distance of the stitches equal and showing little thread. The straight stitching was uneven, and may reduce the quality. 58 Figure 42 - Close up view of triangle trims of Hmong skirt #1 59 Figure 43 - Close up view of straight trims of Hmong skirt #1 Cultural analysis: This skirt was part of the wedding gifts given to a daughter by her mother when she was married. Traditionally during a Hmong wedding, when the bride and groom were sent off from the bride’s house to the groom’s house to finish the ceremony, the mother dressed her daughter one last time in traditional Hmong attire. This skirt was given to the bride so she could represent herself as part of the Hmong Green dialect to the groom’s family. Hmong Skirt #2 Figure 44 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #2 60 Figure 45 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #2 Properties History: There was little history on this skirt and the maker was unknown. The skirt was over twenty years old, and likely made in the early 2000s. This skirt was gifted to the owner by her mother for her wedding because the owner was married to someone who belonged to the Hmong Green dialect. Materials: This skirt is made of polyester and cotton fibers. The batik, waistband, and cross stitch embroidery fabric is cotton. The trims including the triangles, “v” shapes, zig-zag patterns and lines are woven polyester. There is a shine to the fabric. The fiber content of the thread on the cross stitch is unknown but could be a mixture of polyester and cotton. Thread to cross stitch could be yarns taken from the polyester fabric used for the trim. The thread to pleat the skirt is a 61 double strand, but the fiber content is unknown. The cross-stitch embroidery fabric could be 100% cotton. Construction: This Hmong skirt is constructed with three main panels. The top is the waistband, the middle is the batik panel, and the bottom is the cross stitch panel. The waistband is constructed with a caterpillar stitch. The triangles, zig-zag, and “v” shape polyester trims are hand-sewn onto the skirt. The straight line trims are sewn onto the skirt with a sewing machine using a straight stitch. The cross-stitch embroidery is hand-sewn. All the panels are attached by sewing machine. The pleats are folded into ⅜ inch and threaded by hand. There are extra black panels of fabric sewn onto the ends of the skirt. It could be that the maker only accounted for the width of the intended wearer’s waist in the original fabric with no more left to use, or there may have been a shortage of materials. The straps are sewn at the top of the waistband like a binding. If a person takes apart the skirt, there would be six pieces total. (See chart #4) Design: This skirt is a “Tswv Nqai Laug'' design. It has two rows of overlapping “v” shape patterns and a zig-zag pattern in between the “v” shape patterns. Mountain symbols are included on the skirt. The skirt colors consist of pink, yellow, and green trims and orange thread. The base of the skirt fabric is white and blue batik. The length of the skirt is 27.5 inches with the waistband measuring 5.5 inches, and the middle and bottom panels measuring 11 inches in height. Straps at the top of the waistband are unfinished and short at 4 inches. This means that 62 this skirt has not been worn because straps have not been added. The width of the skirt, from CF to CF is 45 inches wide. Function: The function of this Hmong skirt is as a gift from the owner's mom to the owner when she was married. Traditionally if you are from a certain dialect and you marry someone with a different dialect, the parents buy a brand new set of Hmong clothes of the new dialect to wear to their house during the wedding. The skirt owner married someone from the Hmong Green dialect, which is why her mother bought her a Hmong Green skirt. The owner has not worn the skirt as there are no straps on the waistband. Operations Identification: A woman wearing this skirt was identified as someone from the Hmong Green dialect group. The owner identifies this skirt as sentimental as it was a gift given to her by her mother as a wedding gift which was similar to Hmong skirt #1. The owner of this skirt married into the Hmong Green dialect group, so her mother purchased a Hmong Green skirt for her. The maker of the skirt is unknown. Evaluation: The value of this skirt was sentimental as the owner was gifted this skirt by her mother when she married. The monetary value of the skirt was unknown. It was very valuable to the owner as she had never worn it. She did not plan to wear it because she had not added straps to 63 the skirt. She kept it pleated and stored away. The craftsmanship value of this skirt was considered higher end quality because of the hand stitching shown on the triangle and cross trims. The maker took the time to carefully sew the trims by keeping the distance of the stitches equal and keeping the stitches as small as possible so they were close to invisible. Figure 46 - Close up view of zig-zag trims on Hmong skirt #2 Cultural analysis: 64 This skirt is part of the wedding gifts given to a daughter by her mother when she marries. Traditionally during a Hmong wedding, when the bride and groom are sent off from the bride’s house to the groom’s house to finish the ceremony, the mother dresses her daughter one last time in traditional Hmong attire. Hmong Skirt #3 Figure 47 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #3 65 Figure 48 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #3 Properties History: This skirt is considered vintage as it was made about 30-40 years ago, possibly in the early 1980s. The maker and original owner are unknown, but they are related to the seller who sold the skirt to the current owner. The seller is located in California, The seller stated that the skirt was made in the USA. This is a secondhand skirt. Materials: 66 The batik fabric, waistband, and cross stitch embroidery fabrics are cotton. The black panels that are sewn at the sides of the skirt are plain woven cotton. The fabrics used for the triangles, “v” zig-zag, single cross patterns, and lines are woven polyester. The fiber content of thread on the cross stitch is unknown. Thread to cross stitch could be yarns taken from the polyester fabric used for the trims. Thread used to pleat the skirt is unknown. The cross stitch embroidery fabric could be 100% cotton. Construction: This Hmong skirt is constructed with three main panels. The top is the waistband, the middle is the batik panel, and the bottom is the cross stitch panel. The waistband is constructed with a centipede stitch across the waistband. The triangles, straight, zig-zag, and cross “x” shapes sewn onto the skirt are polyester. The straight line trims are sewn onto the skirt with a sewing machine using a straight stitch. The triangles, zig-zag, and cross trims are sewn by hand. The cross-stitch embroidery is hand-sewn. All the panels are attached by sewing machine. This skirt has pleats that are folded into ¼ inch by hand. The skirt is also pleated by hand. There are two extra black panels of fabric sewn onto the side of the skirt using a sewing machine. In total, there are eight pieces to the skirt. (See chart #4) Design: This skirt has a crossing zig-zag design across the skirt which identifies it as a “Tswv Tsuam” design. Mountain symbols are included on the skirt. The skirt colors consist of pink, yellow, white, and green trims with orange and yellow thread for the embroidery. The base of the skirt is white with dark blue dye for the batik. The waistband is white. The length of the skirt is 67 26 inches with the waistband measuring 5 inches, the middle panel measuring 11 inches and the bottom panel measuring 10 inches. The middle and bottom panels are not the same width. Binding at the top of the waistband is 1.25 inches with straps on either side of the skirt measuring 36.5 inches. The extra panels on the side of the skirt are 5 inches wide. The width of the skirt, CF to CF, is 44.5 inches. Function: The function of this skirt was as a garment to be worn for events and parties paired with other Hmong apparel and accessories. A woman could wear this skirt for photoshoots as well. The owner wore the skirt once. She bought it for herself to wear for special occasions. She does not wear it to identify herself from the Hmong Green dialect group. Operations Identification: Traditionally, a woman wearing this skirt is identified as someone from the Hmong Green dialect group. Now, any woman from any dialect can wear Hmong clothes from different dialect groups. In this case, the owner bought it because of the design and quality. She wears it for its beauty rather than to identify herself as from the Hmong Green dialect. The maker is unknown. Evaluation: The monetary value and purchase price of this skirt is $700 USD. The cost is on the higher end of the range for purchasing Hmong skirts. According to the owner of the skirt, most Hmong green skirts don’t have the yellow trim across the width of the skirt which is what influenced her to 68 buy the skirt. This detail makes the skirt more unique and rare to find. The owner identifies this skirt as valuable due to its uniqueness and vintage quality. The craftsmanship value of this skirt could be considered higher end quality because the hand stitching is shown on the triangle and cross trims. The maker has taken the time to carefully sew the trims by keeping the distance of the stitches equal and showing little thread. The machine stitching on the straight line trims reduces the quality as the stitch length is not consistent. 69 Figure 49 - Close up view of cross trim on Hmong skirt #3 Cultural analysis: The most significant cultural element of this skirt is the relationship between the owner and her culture. It was not given to her as a wedding gift like most Hmong skirts nor did she 70 make it herself. She purchased this skirt for the love of Hmong clothes and how unique it was with the yellow trim. Today, it is very common for Hmong women to purchase Hmong skirts for their own pleasure. It is a new trend for women to collect Hmong clothes rather than making them. Hmong Skirt #4 Figure 50 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #4 71 Figure 51 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #4 Properties History: The maker was unknown, but it was sourced from the same seller as Hmong Skirt #3. The seller was from California. The seller in California only sold clothing made by their relatives. The year it was made is unknown, but the skirt owner believed it was vintage and possibly made before the 1980s. Materials: The materials that make this skirt are a mixture of polyester and cotton fibers. The batik fabric, waistband, and cross stitch embroidery fabrics are woven cotton. The fabrics used for the pink, yellow, and green trims are woven polyester. The fiber content of the thread on the cross 72 stitch is unknown, but could be yarns that are taken from the polyester fabric used for the trim. Thread used to pleat the skirt is unknown. The cross stitch embroidery fabric could be woven, 100% cotton. Construction: This Hmong skirt has a top panel, the waistband, the middle batik panel, and the bottom cross stitch panel. The waistband is constructed with a centipede stitch across the waistband. The triangles are sewn by hand. The double cross, triple cross trims and straight line trims across the width of the skirt are sewn with a sewing machine using a straight stitch. Cross stitch embroidery is hand sewn. All the panels are attached by sewing machine using a straight stitch. This skirt has ⅜ inch pleats that are folded by hand. The skirt pleats are also threaded by hand. In total, there are four pieces to the skirt. (See chart #4) Design: The middle panel of the skirt has a double cross design and a triple cross design on the cross stitch panel. The skirt colors consist of pink, yellow, white, and green trims with orange and yellow thread for the embroidery. Included in the skirt are rows of triangles which are the mountain symbol. The base of the skirt is white with blue dye for the batik. The waistband is white. The length of the skirt is 24.5 inches with the waistband measuring 4 inches. The middle panel and bottom panel measure 10.5 inches. The binding at the top of the waistband is 1 inch with straps on either side of the skirt measuring 39.5 inches. The width of the skirt, CF to CF, is 45 inches wide. 73 Function The function of this skirt is as a garment to be worn for events and parties paired with other Hmong apparel and accessories. A woman could wear this skirt for photoshoots as well. The owner bought the skirt for herself to wear for special occasions. She has not worn it as it was still in the original packaging. The tape on the back of the skirt has written measurements of the skirt, which indicate that it is a “tag” that has not been taken out for wear. Operations Identification: Someone wearing this skirt would wear it to identify themselves from the Hmong Green dialect group. The skirt would be paired with other apparel and accessories that identify within the Hmong Green dialect. The owner of this skirt is also the owner of the previous skirt. She bought it because of the design and quality and plans to wear it to events and parties. She does not wear the skirt to identify herself from a dialect group. Evaluation: The monetary value and purchase price of this skirt is $425 USD. This is the median price range for handmade Hmong Green skirts. Even though this is the median price range, it is a valuable skirt due to its quality. The stitching is very detailed and small suggesting that the maker of this skirt has taken the time to be careful and sew it neatly. The double cross and triple cross trims are sewn by machine instead of by hand, which is uncommon. Though it is clean and neatly sewn, the 74 value may be lower because the double cross and triple cross trims usually show as few stitches as possible. 75 76 Figure 52 - Close up view of straight trims on Hmong skirt #4 Cultural analysis: The cultural significance of this skirt was the relationship between the owner and her culture. Similar to the previous skirt, it was not given to her as a wedding gift and she did not make it herself. She purchased this skirt for her love of Hmong clothes. She liked to collect Hmong skirts, as it had become a new trend for Hmong women. Hmong Skirt #5 Figure 53 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #5 77 78 Figure 54 - Interior view of Hmong skirt #5 waistband Properties History: The maker was unknown, but it was possibly made in Laos in the 1960s. The owner purchased this skirt in 2005 from an elderly woman who had recently arrived in the United States. This skirt was considered vintage and secondhand. Materials: The materials that make this skirt are a mixture of polyester and cotton fibers. The batik fabric, cross stitch embroidery fabric, and red trim fabric are cotton. The fabric used for the pink trims is polyester and there is a shine to the trim. Thread to cross stitch could be yarns taken from the polyester fabric used for the trim. The thread used to pleat the skirt is unknown. The waistband is possibly made from bags that have been used to sell rice because when the skirt is turned over, there is writing on the waistband. The bag of rice may have been used to conserve more valuable material or because it was the only material they had. Because the waistband is not visible when worn as Hmong traditional attire, the upcycled waistband is not a concern. The owner believes the bag of rice is from the Korean War. The bag is possibly woven cotton. Construction: This Hmong skirt is unique as it is sewn by hand with only the foot of the skirt sewn by machine. It has a waistband panel, the middle batik panel, and a bottom cross stitch panel. The 79 waistband is constructed with a caterpillar stitch. The triangle trims, cross trims, and straight line trim are sewn by hand. The binding at the foot of the skirt is sewn with a machine using a straight stitch. Cross stitch embroidery is hand sewn. All the panels are attached by hand as well. This skirt has ⅜ inch pleats that are folded and threaded by hand. There are nine pieces total, as there are extra panels attached to the skirt. (See chart #4) Design: The batik panel is designed with a zig zags pattern, crossing zig zag pattern, and then another row of zig zag pattern. This determines it is a “Tswv Tsuam” style. There are also multiple rows of mountain symbols. The cross stitch panel is designed with a row of single cross pattern with triangle trims on each side. The skirt consists of pink and red thread for the cross stitch embroidery. There is white, red, pink and green fabric used for trims. The waistband is white. The middle panel is indigo blue dye. The bottom of the skirt panel is white. The extra fabrics on the sides are light blue and navy blue. The length of the skirt is 23 inches with the waistband measuring 5.5 inches. The middle panel measures 9 inches and the bottom panel measures 8.5 inches. The width of the skirt, from CF to CF, is 33.5 inches. Function: Traditionally, the function of this Hmong skirt is to identify the wearer as Hmong green. The owner currently wears the skirt for events or entertainment such as parties or photoshoots. The owner has a fascination with collecting Hmong skirts. When not in use, she keeps it stored away so one day she can give it to her daughters and they can give it to their daughters. 80 Operations Identification: Someone wearing this skirt would wear it to identify themselves from the Hmong Green dialect group, especially in the 1960s. The owner acquired this skirt to help an elderly Hmong lady but it is not known if the woman is from the Hmong Green dialect group. The owner has worn this skirt multiple times. She does not wear it to identify herself as Hmong Green, though she married into the Hmong Green dialect group. Evaluation: The value of this skirt is considered vintage as it is from the 1960s. The owner purchased the skirt for $150 in 2005 to help an elderly Hmong lady. The value of the skirt could be worth more now. The value of this skirt to the owner is sentimental because she states that Hmong skirts are significant for their stories used in the design and patterns and the materials used. The owner believes the skirts tell a story reflecting the enduring nature of the Hmong cultural heritage and how Hmong attire evolves over time. The craftsmanship value could be considered high end because of the vintage quality and because the whole garment is sewn by hand. Cultural analysis: The cultural significance of this skirt was the relationship between the skirt and the Hmong culture. The owner purchased this skirt for herself because of her love of Hmong clothes. Another cultural element was purchasing the skirt intending to hand it down to her daughters. 81 Many Hmong clothes or belongings had been handed down to family members when they passed rather than given away. Hmong Skirt #6 82 Figure 55 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #6 83 Figure 56 - Full Exterior view of Hmong skirt #6 Properties History: The maker was unknown, but it was possibly made in Laos in the 1920s-1940s. The owner purchased this skirt in 2017 during a visit to Phonsavan, Laos. This skirt was considered vintage and secondhand as she bought it from the previous owner. Materials: The materials that make this skirt are a mixture of cotton and silk fibers. The purple threads used to cross stitch are silk. The pink, orange, and white threads are unknown, but could be cotton because the materials in the 1920s-1940s were not synthetic. The skirt is cotton fiber, which includes the base of the fabric, the batik fabric, and the pink, red, and white trim. 84 Construction: This Hmong skirt was sewn by hand. This skirt had a repurposed waistband because the original waistband was worn out. The owner had it replaced with a black cotton fabric which was uncommon as the waistband was usually white. This skirt had three panels, a waistband panel, the middle batik panel, and a bottom cross stitch panel. The waistband was constructed with a caterpillar stitch. The zig-zag and straight line trims were sewn by hand. All the panels were attached by hand as well. This skirt had ¼ inch pleats that were folded by hand and then threaded by hand. The skirt consisted of nine pieces. There were many extra pieces of fabric used. This was likely done to preserve the skirt by replacing some parts with more durable fabric or filling in missing pieces. Design: The batik panel is designed with some cross stitch details and a batik pattern. There are no trims or designs on the panel like other skirts. The cross stitch panel is designed with one row of zig-zag with a straight line trim on each side of the pattern. This skirt consists of pink, red, and white fabric used for trims. Pink, red, orange, and purple thread is used for cross stitching. The waistband is black. The batik panel is indigo blue. The bottom panel uses navy blue embroidery fabric. The length of the skirt is 20 inches with the waistband measuring 3 inches. The middle panel measures 11 inches and the bottom panel measures 6 inches. The width of the skirt is 44.5 inches. Function: 85 Traditionally the function of this Hmong skirt is to identify the wearer as Hmong green. The function of this skirt to the owner is to wear it for events and entertainment. She is the same owner as the previous skirt. She collects skirts for entertainment but also so she can pass them down to her daughters and their daughters. Operations Identification: Someone wearing this skirt in the 1920s-1940s would wear it to identify themselves from the Hmong Green dialect group. The owner acquired this skirt and has worn itt multiple times. She wears it because it is beautiful and not to identify herself from the Hmong Green dialect group. Evaluation: The value of this skirt is considered vintage as it is from the 1920s. The owner purchased the skirt for about $100 USD in 2017. The value of the skirt could be worth $200 now. The owner mentioned that this skirt has a sentimental value rather than a monetary value. The craftsmanship value of this skirt could be considered high due to the skirt being handmade. The straight trims do not show any stitching and the zig-zag trims show very little stitches. Another factor of high value is the silk fiber. During the 1920s, it was considered rare to use silk fibers thus the use of silk in Hmong clothes is considered high quality. 86 Figure 57 - Close up view of Hmong skirt #6 Cultural analysis: 87 The cultural significance of this skirt is the relationship between the owner and her culture. She is the same owner as the previous skirt. Rather than being given a Hmong skirt or making the skirt, the owner purchased this skirt for herself because of her love of Hmong clothes. She also purchased this skirt intending to hand it down to her daughters. Hmong Skirt #7 Figure 58 - Exterior view of Hmong skirt #7 Properties 88 History: The maker of this skirt was unknown, but the owner purchased this skirt from a Facebook seller during the pandemic. During the pandemic, the popularity of Hmong clothes increased dramatically. This was when many Hmong women purchased Hmong clothes from Facebook sellers and makers. This skirt was made within the last five years because it was a modern style of Hmong Green skirt. The skirt owner mentioned that she did not want to go in person to purchase a skirt and wanted to buy from a seller online due to the pandemic. Materials: This skirt is made from a mixture of cotton and polyester fibers. The waistband, the batik fabric, and the embroidery base fabric are cotton. Thread to cross stitch could be yarns taken from the polyester fabric used for the trim. The thread to pleat the skirt is of unknown fiber content. This is considered a newer version of Hmong Green skirts because of the use of floral green and floral pink fabric. The floral fabric may be polyester. Construction: This Hmong skirt is sewn by hand and machine. This skirt has three panels, a waistband panel, the middle batik panel, and a bottom cross stitch panel. The waistband is constructed with a caterpillar stitch. The cross trims, triangle-shaped trims, and cross stitching are sewn by hand. All straight seams and straight trims are sewn by machine. This skirt has ¼ inch pleats that are folded and threaded by hand. If the skirt is taken apart, there are six pieces: The waistband binding/straps, the waistband, middle panel, the bottom panel, and two end fabrics. (see chart # 4) 89 Design: The skirt is multi-colored including blue, white, green, pink, and yellow. There are red, yellow, and green threads used for the cross stitching. Pink, yellow, and green floral fabric is used for the trims. The waistband is white and the batik is indigo blue. This skirt is a double cross pattern design. This skirt is pleated using the 2-1-2-1 pleating method. The length of the skirt is 20 inches with the waistband measuring 3 inches. The middle panel measures 11 inches and the bottom panel measures 6 inches. The width of the skirt is 44.5 inches from CF to CF. Function: Traditionally the function of this skirt is to identify the wearer as Hmong green. The owner of this skirt likes to wear it to events such as Hmong New Year and photoshoots. Operations Identification: The skirt is a modern style and most members of the Hmong community know that it is not intended for identification. Today, someone wearing this skirt would wear it for its beauty. This skirt is a modern style of Hmong Green skirt, and many women who purchase this modern style skirt buy it for the beautiful floral fabric. The owner of the skirt wears it for its beauty and does not wear the skirt to identify herself as Hmong Green. Evaluation: 90 The owner purchased the skirt for between $250-$350 USD. The skirt owner bought it because she wanted a Hmong Green skirt. She also purchased this skirt for the quality and customization of length. She liked that the skirt was shorter and fuller for her style and taste. The value of this skirt was high because the style was very popular. Though this skirt was designed the same way as other Hmong skirts, what made it popular was the floral fabric. The craftsmanship of the skirt was neatly sewn. When examined, the stitches on cross trims and triangles were almost invisible. The thread on the straight trims matched the fabric and were uniform in size . 91 Figure 59 - Close up view of cross trims on Hmong skirt #7 Cultural analysis: The cultural significance of this skirt was a modern representation of Hmong culture. The owner purchased this skirt as she desired a Hmong green skirt made with modern materials. She also purchased the skirt during the pandemic. During the pandemic, there was a trend of buying 92 Hmong clothes to collect. Another trend was floral fabric. Many women were trying to find vintage floral designs for their skirts. Hmong Skirt #8 Figure 60 - Exterior front view of Hmong skirt #8 93 Figure 61 - Exterior back view of Hmong skirt #8 Properties History: The maker of this skirt was unknown. The owner purchased this skirt in Minnesota from a Hmong store over 15 years ago. She believed it was a store in the Hmongtown Market located in Saint Paul, Minnesota. This skirt was purchased as a set, meaning it was paired with other apparel and accessories. Materials: 94 This skirt is made from polyester. The pattern is printed onto the polyester fabric and permanently pleated. The polyester fiber allows for permanent pleating due to its thermoplastic properties. Cotton fiber cannot be permanently pleated which is why it has to be repleted and threaded to stay in shape. The zipper used is a nylon coil invisible zipper. There are no zippers in traditional Hmong skirts. Construction: This Hmong skirt is sewn by machine. The construction of this skirt is like a modern skirt. It does not have three separate panels like a traditional skirt, but is printed to mimic the three panels. This skirt is one printed fabric panel that is sewn with a center back seam. The trim at the waistband is sewn to hold the pleats and mimics the caterpillar stitch. It is also constructed with an invisible zipper at the center back. There are three pieces to this skirt, the waistband binding, the waistband, and the skirt panel. Design: This skirt consists of white, black, orange, and red colors. The design is a printed Hmong Moos Peej design. It is Hmong Moos Pheej because of the snail designs at the bottom of the skirt. Diamond symbols are also on the skirt . The design of the skirt mimics the middle and bottom panels as if they were sewn together. The waistband measures 2.75 inches wide, the middle panel measures 11.5 inches, and bottom panel measures 8.5inches. The foot of the skirt measures 1.5 inches. Because the skirt is not a traditional skirt, the measurement for the waist is 15 inches along the top edge (half) or a 30 inches circumference. 95 Function: The function of this skirt is to be worn for special occasions, events, and photoshoots. The main function of this skirt is for easy accessibility to wear. A traditional Hmong skirt would be wrapped around the waist and tied, but this skirt can zip at the center back. Also, this skirt can be worn without an apron covering the exposed panels at the center front. This allows the wearer to have fewer layers of clothing and to wear this skirt in a modern style. Though the function of this skirt is easier, the skirt needs to be the correct measurement for the wearer. Since traditional skirts can wrap around the wearer, it is easier for the wearer to go up or down one size if they find a skirt they like, though the wearer still needs to fit within the size guide. For example, a size 38 cannot fit into a 33 inches width skirt, but a size 30 can. Operations Identification: It is very obvious that this skirt is printed and not made the traditional way. This skirt is worn for its beauty and design rather than identifying someone from a group. The owner purchased the skirt for accessibility. The maker is unknown. Evaluation: The purchase price of the skirt is unknown. Due to the skirt properties and how it is made, the monetary value for the skirt today could range between $15-$35 USD. The skirt owner purchased this skirt for its beauty and easy function to wear the garment. There is no sentimental or monetary value between the skirt and owner. The craftsmanship of the skirt is considered 96 lower end because of the method of creating the print and permanent pleating. The hem of the skirt is only turned once and topstitched leaving a raw edge. The thread does not match the fabric. There was little hand work on this garment. If someone purchases this skirt, they would know the value is lower as the fabrication methods are very modern creating the look of a traditional garment without the quality materials and techniques. Figure 62 - Close up view of hem of Hmong skirt #8 Cultural analysis: This was culturally significant because it was a modern style of Hmong skirts. About 15-20 years ago, it was the trend in the local community to wear modern constructed skirts. This saved considerable cost on materials and time making the skirts. Many skirts were made from polyester to permanently set the pleats and save time. Modern skirts like this were usually constructed with a zipper at the center back or an elastic waistband. 97 Chapter 4 Results The results section looks at the eight skirts together to determine the similarities and differences, to examine the different methods in construction and design of the Hmong skirts across time and location, and to track continuity or change in symbolic meaning. The charts are categorized by Fleming's model for artifact study: properties and operations. Under each property or operation are the details about the skirts. Properties: History: 98 99 Chart 1 - History Chart Materials: 100 Chart 2 - Materials Chart 101 The materials chart breaks down the fiber, fabrics, and trims used in the skirts. Six out of the eight skirts consist of both polyester and cotton fiber. Skirt #6 uses silk fiber instead of polyester, but also uses cotton fiber. Skirt #8 is the only skirt that consists only of polyester fiber. All skirts are made with woven fabrics. Skirt #1 through #7 use batik and embroidery fabrics. Skirt #8 is the only skirt that uses polyester woven fabric for the whole skirt. Though the thread used is unknown fiber, all skirts use cotton or polyester thread for cross stitching, machine sewing, and pleating. Skirt #8 is the only skirt that uses an invisible zipper trim. 102 Design: 103 104 Chart 3 - Design Chart The design chart looks at the style of the skirt, the size,and the colors used. Three skirts are the double cross or Tswv Tsav design, which is a popular style. Another popular style is the single cross style with two of the eight skirts that use that pattern. The skirts range in size but 44.5” or 45” is the most common width Skirts #6 & 7 are the shortest measuring 20” in length. This length hits right above the knee for a woman about 5’ 1”. Traditionally, Hmong skirt length hits at the knee or longer. Skirt #2 measures 27.5” in length, which determines that it is a traditional skirt length. The colors in these skirts are similar. In a Hmong Green skirt, the common colors are yellow, pink, and green trims with red and orange thread used for cross stitching. Batik panels are often indigo blue dyed but some dyed skirts are black with white or a natural cotton colored waistband. In this case, six skirts have white waistbands except for skirt #5 and skirt #6. Skirt #5 uses an upcycled rice bag which is a natural color instead of white. Skirt #6’s waistband is black because the owner had the white waistband replaced. Skirts #1 to #7 all had rows of triangle trims which determined that they were mountain symbols. This is common in Hmong green skirts. Skirt #8 has snail symbols and diamond symbols. 105 Construction: 106 107 Chart 4 - Construction Chart The construction chart summarizes the sewing technique, the panels, and shows a flat illustration of the number of panels in a skirt. Seven of the skirts are made with both hand sewing and machine sewing techniques. Hand sewing techniques are used for all the cross stitching and trims that form the pattern design, such as the cross (X), “v” shape, zig-zag, and triangle trims. All the pleats are hand sewn. Machine sewing on the skirts is found on the straight trims and construction of the panels. Skirts #5 and #6 do not use machine sewing for the straight trims and construction of the panels. They are hand sewn. The only skirt that doesn't use any hand sewing techniques is skirt #8 because it is printed. Each skirt is unique in the size, design, and number of panels. For example, skirts #5 and #6 have nine pieces, but they are not the same size panels and are not constructed the same way. Skirts #2 and #7 have six panels, but do not have the same size of panels or similar constructions. Skirts #1 and #4 are the only two with the same number of panels constructed in the same way. Function: 108 109 Chart 5 - Function Chart Traditionally, the Hmong skirt was worn to identify the wearer as Hmong Green. Originally worn on a daily basis, it was reserved for special occasions in the early 20th century. Currently, each skirt has a different function while holding on to the history of that tradition. The majority of the skirt owners purchased their skirts for events, special occasions, or photoshoots. Two of the skirt owners had been given the skirts for their wedding. The function of these skirts has changed over the years. This is because many women purchase skirts instead of making them. Women are also purchasing skirts to collect because they are beautiful to wear or they want to give them as gifts to their daughters. Hmong women in the United States purchase from other Hmong women overseas due to a shift in the culture. Hmong women in the United States are working women in other fields or do not have the knowledge to hand make a skirt. Hmong women in Laos or Thailand still retain the knowledge of how to make the traditional Hmong skirt. In addition to preserving this part of the culture, for some it may be their main source of income (Saetho, 2024). Operations: Identification, Evaluation & Cultural Analysis Operations: 110 111 Chart 6 - Operation Chart Identification The identification of skirt #1 and #2 served the most traditional purpose as it was given to the owners to appropriately represent themselves as part of the Hmong Green dialect. The owner’s respective mothers purchased the skirts. It was customary that the mother gave her daughter a traditional Hmong ensemble as a wedding gift. One of the owners married into the Hmong Green dialect group. Skirts #3 to #8 could be worn to identify the wearer as Hmong Green, but that was not the skirt owners’ intention. They wore the skirt for its beauty and design. Skirt #8 was worn for easy function and accessibility. The skirt owners for #3 to #8 were not part of the Hmong Green dialect group and they purchased the skirts for themselves. The makers of these skirts were unknown and the owners did not make these skirts. The cultural geography of these skirts is unique. As stated in the history and materials chart, the origin of the skirts is Laos, Thailand, or the United States. If the skirt was made in Laos or Thailand, it is likely that the materials were sourced locally or through trade due to the time period. For skirts made in the United States, the origin of the materials can be difficult to determine as makers can buy materials online or at a local vendor. What was once an object used for identification is now primarily used for its beauty. Though some women still wear the skirts to announce their Hmong identity, it does not necessarily identify them as part of that dialect group. Evaluation 112 Though these skirts were purchased during different times, their value can still be examined and compared. The skirt is examined in two different aspects: a monetary value and craftsmanship value. Skirt #1 and #2 has an unknown monetary value as it was the owners’ mothers who purchased the skirt and the skirt owners did not know the information. Though the monetary value was unknown, the skirt owners considered it valuable for sentimental reasons. The two skirts were over 20 years old, meaning it was vintage. The hand stitching quality was very neat as it was carefully sewn to show little thread. This was considered a traditional style because of the longer length. Skirt #3 is the most expensive skirt at $700. This is because of the unique yellow trim across the skirt. This detail is uncommon in a vintage skirt. This skirt is also considered vintage as it was made 30-40 years ago. The hand stitching quality of this skirt is also very good as it is sewn carefully to show little thread. The owner identifies this skirt as very valuable due to the unique trim and vintage quality. Skirt #4 is valued at $425 which is a median price pointbut may be considered high for some buyers. A buyer often sees higher quality handmade Hmong skirts priced $400 or over.The craftsmanship of this skirt is unique as the trims are sewn by machine instead of by hand. This is an uncommon practice. As skirt #4 has the same skirt owner as #3, she considers this skirt valuable due to the vintage quality. Skirt #5 and #6 have monetary value on the lower end of the range. This is possibly because of the time it was purchased or where it was purchased. Skirt #5 was purchased in 2005 for $150 in the US. Skirt #6 was purchased in 2017 in Laos for $100. Another factor could be the trade value of currency. The value of $100 is 113 higher in Laos due to the currency exchange. If these skirts were sold today, the monetary value would go up because of the vintage quality. The craftsmanship of skirt #5 is excellent as it is all hand stitched. This will make the value higher because it is rare to see skirts that are totally made by hand. Skirt #6 is also sewn by hand but has a repurposed waistband that is done by machine. It is uncertain if the repurposed waistband would bring up the value or bring down as this was done to fit the owner. Skirt #6 is very unique and valuable because of the silk fiber used. The owner specified that these skirts are considered valuable for sentimental reasons rather than monetary reasons. The owner has a love for Hmong cultural clothing and wants to hand them down to her daughters. Hmong skirt #7 has a monetary value between $250-$350 in part due to demand for Hmong clothing during COVID. The price is considered in the median range. The craftsmanship is unique because the skirt owner customized the sizing and length to fit for her own taste. This skirt is also neatly sewn by machine and hand. Craftsmanship is consistent. Though the skirt is designed the same as other Hmong Green skirts, what makes it unique is the floral fabric used for the trims. During COVID 2020-2023, the value of Hmong clothing skyrocketed. Many factors contributed to this. A lot of people were staying home during the pandemic, and purchasing clothes online became the new norm. Another factor is purchasing Hmong clothes to dress up for leisure because the big events like Hmong New Year and weddings were postponed or canceled. Skirt #8 is the lowest price at a range of $15-$35. This is because of the industrialization of skirt making. The skirt was printed and permanently pleated which is less time consuming and less hand work for the maker. Another factor for it being priced so little is because it is not the 114 traditional wrap skirt design. The craftsmanship of this skirt is low quality. The hem of the skirt shows the raw edges. The designs and patterns are also printed and not hand sewn, thus making the skirt look like a traditional garment without the quality materials and techniques. Cultural Analysis A Hmong skirt serves a purpose to be worn for events like Hmong New Year, funerals or weddings. What makes it unique now is that each skirt’s cultural aspect depends on the owner’s relationship with the Hmong culture. Skirt # 1 and #2 are similar because the cultural relationship between the owner and their skirt is that they were gifted from their mothers as wedding gifts. This is considered a traditional factor. S The cultural relationship between the owners and skirts #3 to #7 is considered a modern approach as they have been purchased for their love of Hmong clothes. They purchased the skirt to collect or have in their closet to wear for special occasions and events. Skirt #8 is a modernization approach to save on cost and materials while still capturing the essence of the traditional skirt. Interpretation The significance of a Hmong skirt is to appropriately identify each woman’s dialect. Traditionally, the skirt is the easiest to spot from a distance to identify the woman. When seen up close, the craftsmanship and detail of the Hmong skirt is examined to see if the woman was considered marriageable. Other details such as the more intricate the design or even adding beads or silver coins shows higher class. In modern times, this is no longer relevant. The relationship between the Hmong culture and the buyer or owner has shifted as a new practice has emerged. As mentioned, Hmong women are not buying Hmong clothes to identify themselves from a 115 certain dialect group but to identify themselves as part of the Hmong community. They are buying skirts for their beauty or because they are interested in collecting them. Hmong women are not sewing their own traditional clothing anymore. Hmong women are now collecting and buying Hmong skirts. The quality of the skirt, the rarity of the design, or the entertainment value of collecting many different styles and designs encourages participation in the activity. Hmong skirts are a very popular item to buy and receive as it is most sought out when buying Hmong clothes. Chapter 5 Conclusion Dress functions as an important expression of ethnic and intergroup identity (Wronska-Friend, 2010, p. 459). This study's objective is to examine the different methods of construction and design of the Hmong skirts across time and location to track continuity or change in symbolic meaning. The results suggest that there has been change over the years in symbolic meaning, the construction, and design but the structure of the garment remains the same or similar. Over time, the structure of the Hmong skirts in this study is the same or similar as they are still constructed with the three core panels: waistband, middle panel, and bottom panel. The waistband is constructed with long straps to wrap the skirt around the wearer with the opening at the center front of the body. The skirts are consistent with the waistband being a solid white color, the middle panel being batik design, and the bottom panel being cross stitched, though they may be designed with different patterns or symbols. Some construction of the skirts are still 116 sewn by hand using a cross stitching method, hand pleating the skirt, and hand stitching the diagonal and triangle trims to show less thread. Another structure piece that has stayed the same are the end panels of the skirt. The construction of the end panels is still unfinished or uses different panels to form the end panel. This consistently unfinished end panel indicates how important the apron accessory is to the traditional Hmong ensemble. Over time, there are some changes to the traditional construction. Looking at skirt #6 compared to skirt #7, there is a significant difference between the amount of trims used. Skirt #6 showcases more of the the batik panel whereas skirt #7 showcases more of the trims. This indicates more sewing is used on the newer skirts, both hand sewing and machine sewing techniques. This illustrates that the design has changed as seen in the usage of the green and pink trims. The trims dominate the overall design of the skirt compared to the past priority of the batiking design. Among the skirts, Hmong skirt #8 shows a dramatic change because of the modern techniques used to construct and design the skirt. This skirt was machine printed, machine pleated, and sewn into a modern silhouette without the need to wrap the skirt around the wearer’s waist. This new change of design was not as popular as the traditional style. Research also showed that the modern style costs were much less than the traditional styles. Thus, it may not be considered as valuable as it does not showcase the traditional style, design, or construction hat interests most skirt collectors. Symbolic meaning of the skirt has changed. The Hmong skirt plays a huge role within their community that can often be overlooked by those inside and outside the community. In earlier times, the significance of the Hmong skirt symbolized a Hmong woman’s identity, 117 workmanship, and skills. Currently, Hmong skirts are worn for their beauty and only for special occasions. Most members of the Hmong community have embraced the transition of this object from showcasing a woman's skill and craftsmanship to its function as an object of beauty and identity. The symbols within the patterns and motifs of skirts were meant to be used as a hidden language for the Hmong people to communicate during the Han Chinese period. Now the motifs are used as a symbol for Hmong representation, but not a language. The most popular motif used is the Elephant’s foot to represent the Hmong community. This analysis signifies the importance of Hmong skirts to the Hmong community while documenting the change in Hmong skirts over time. It celebrates and shares the value of this element of Hmong culture. This research encouragesHmong community members or others outside of the Hmong community to research Hmong culture. It contributes to the documentation of Hmong culture as most Hmong history is primarily shared by word of mouth. Unfortunately, Hmong people are losing the history and knowledge of their customs and traditions. As women collect skirts and other Hmong apparel and accessories for themselves or for future generations, this practice can be a hopeful change that celebrates and documents the history and culture. Collections can be documented and analyzed by time periods and different styles. Further Research The Hmong have astonished others with their cultural dress and history. With the Hmong community moving towards industrialization, further research can be done to analyze historic and modern Hmong skirts. There are many different opportunities to continue the research of 118 Hmong skirts. An option is to analyze skirts from different dialects instead of focusing on one dialect. A great way to do this is to interview Hmong clothing collectors and makers from the dialects. Another research can analyze skirts that are made within the past five years because of the impact of industrialization on the new Hmong designs. Industrialization could be an important factor to consider. For the skirts, industrialization has made it easy for skirts to be machine printed and machine pleated. Another shift of industrialization is that the research can focus on the printed floral fabrics that are used in the newer Hmong skirt designs. The floral fabrics have been a popular style, and many fabric mills in Asia are re-producing floral fabrics. s. Collecting floral textiles that are vintage or may look vintage is the new trend in the last five 5 years. Other items to be researched include Hmong jackets, belts, hats, and paj ntaub embroidery because there is little to no artifact analysis on these items. Many jewelry accessories could also be analyzed. Styles have changed over the years since immigration. The reason for this change is not only industrialization of materials but also the cultural shift. Living in America, the Hmong wear Hmong textiles mixed with modern styles and silhouettes. There may not necessarily be a need to wear a certain accessory or piece of garment due to the fashion shift. It would be a great way to document the styles and change over time. It is certain that the traditional paj ntaub will continue to change. The Hmong community continues to evolve and modernize their practices. 119 References Clarke, R. C. (2005). Collections Corner: Hmong Hemp Skirts. Journal of Industrial Hemp, 10(1), 61–85. https://doi.org/10.1300/J237v10n01_06 Cha, P. Y. (2010). 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Journal of Southeast Asian American Education & Advancement, 6(1), 1–4. 123 http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781847888556.EDch6032 https://doi.org/10.1177/13591835221125113 Appendix A - Hmong Skirt Pictures Hmong Skirt #1 - Center front of the Skirt 124 125 Hmong Skirt #1 - Internal view of the Skirt Hmong Skirt #2 - Close up of Center Front of Skirt 126 Hmong Skirt #3 - Close Up of Center Front of Skirt 127 Hmong Skirt #4 - Close Up of Center Front of Skirt 128 Hmong Skirt #6 - Close up of Embroidery and Pattern 129 Hmong Skirt #6 - Close Up of Embroidery and Pattern 130 Hmong Skirt #7 - Back of the skirt 131 Hmong Skirt #8 - Close up of Printed Pattern 132 Appendix B - Interview Questions 1) What is your background in Hmong textile knowledge? 2) What is the difference between Hmong skirts back then and now? 3) How do you determine when the skirt was made? 4) What makes a skirt vintage? 5) What kind of construction details are used in a skirt? 6) What are the meanings in the construction of the skirt? 7) Are there any symbols that are mostly used in a Hmong skirt? 8) What makes a skirt worth more than the other skirt? 9) What are the techniques used to make a skirt? 10) How to determine the sizing of the skirt? a) How is the skirt sized? How much yardage is needed for each size? b) How to know the width and length of the skirt? c) How to know the length of the strap? 11) Is there anything else? Are there questions you think I should be asking that I have not? 133